NRME

SECTION

JLA.JB (}) JRA.Jf()) JR. Yl MAN TfJAlL

Department of Physics
University of Victoria
PHYSICS 215 LABORATORY INDEX

Laboratory Notes Pages 1-23

Experiments

2 Charge to Mass Ratio of the Electron (Magnetron Method)

3 Charge to Mass Ratio of the Electron vf-l

4 Photo-emission of Electrons from Potassium vv~9
9 The Balmer Series w'<- 3
11 Properties of X-rays IN<. S'

12 Radioactivity wt \ (-soV\ 1~}

June 1988
PHYSICS 215 1.
LABORATORY NOTES

INTRODUCTION: The primary purpose of a laboratory course in Physics is to

illustrate and clarify physical principles and to provide training in the
scientific method of investigation. Performing certain experiments should
acquaint the student with the methods, instruments, and techniques of physical
operations and develop skill in the manipulation of apparatus and in making
measurements.

Some of the experiments to be performed are designed to measure certain

physical quantities, others to verify known laws, others to obtain empirical
relationships between two or more quantities. In every case accurate
observations carefully recorded are necessary.

DIRECTIVES:

1. The laboratory work must be satisfactorily completed in order to

obtain credit in the course. Excused absences may be made up by permission.
Unexcused absences will result in zero for the day's experiment. If you have
been absent, under no circumstances may you use the data taken by your partner.

2. The experiments as described in the instructions that follow are such

that the average student should be able to complete his experiment and have it
completely in report form at the end of the second 3-hour period. To do this,
however, the experiment must be understood. Since some of the experiments will
be· performed before the subject matter is discussed in class, everyone is
strongly advised to READ THE INSTRUCTIONS FOR HIS EXPERIMENT CAREFULLY BEFORE
COMING TO THE LABORATORY.

3. Be careful in handling the apparatus. Breakages are usually due to

carelessness. If breakage should occur at any time, be sure to report it
immediately so that repairs may be made before the next laboratory period.

Do not handle any apparatus except that which is provided for your
experiment.

At the conclusion of the experiment, leave the apparatus properly

disassembled and neatly arranged. Your stool should be placed in position
under the table.

4. Do not record observations or results on loose sheets of paper--they

are too easily lost or misplaced. Make your recordings in a hard covered
notebook. If your final results are wrong, a check through the observations
and calculations may reveal an error in substitution or computations. But if
your records are unintelligible or not complete enough, a repetition of the
whole experiment may be necessary.

5. Reports. It is important that the student should know the technique

of writing reports and, for this reason, the form of the report is analyzed on
the following page. It should emphasized that quantity is not quality. If you
can write a description in good English that states the case in ten words, you
should not use one hundred words. Try also to be reasonably neat in your
reports. This is not only a good habit but it makes your report easier to
read. If you are drawing a diagram, draw it in pencil in case erasures are
neces$ary and use a ruler where you intend to draw a straight line. Then label
your diagram in ink. If you have tables of figures to present, box them in
with pencil lines--it will keep them orderly.
2.
PHYSICS 215 Lab Notes

THE FORM OF THE REPORT

The following format will be used in the Physics laboratory report.

DATE • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • NAME •••••••••••••••••••••••••

PARTNER' S NAME •••••••••••••••••••••••••

EXPERIMENT NO. • •••••••••••••••••

TITLE • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••

OBJECT: As it appears in the instructions.

DIAGRAM: A clear, well labelled, simple line schematic diagram of

(on left hand the equipment.
blank page)

APPARATUS: A short list of the major apparatus used in the experiment

with their serial (or yellow sticker) number.

~ DATA: All actual measurements with UNITS are· to be recorded in

L,L ~~ (on left hand ink directly on the left hand blank pages. Record your
\1\ c.,f' ~ blank page) data in a tabular form whenever possible. Often data and
~~ --4 results can be combined in a simple tabular form. Include
~-~·~ your estimated uncertainties in all measured values.

CALCULATIPNS: , A sample calculation including uncertainti~s for each type

\o(c.t_(Q..'(M\rJ'.c""-(.W 1 ~ f result should be shown. ( .• o.~r.C ..' .
Graphs should be neatly labelled and located on the left
hand graph pages. A sample graph on page 4 is shown for
= q,nJ~ loJ, your guidance. ~ ( ~ '. ro ~) cr< lA hl- "0 ) wNJo
(
.;( _... 1 l lw.J'f -mo~,
G rscussioN oF Point out where errors may originate that will influence • I

RESULTS AND the results and indicate what reliability you believe can
ERRORS: be placed in the results. If a graph has been plotted, be
sure to discuss its significance.

CONCLUSIONS: If a phys i cal quantity is measured, the experimental value

should be stated together with the estimated uncertainty.
If a physical quantity is known, it should be compared with
the value found experimentally.
~·
QUESTIONS: These should be answered briefly. \U ~

These are the principal headings to be used in the write-ups of your

experiment. Some of the more important details in experimental write-ups
will be discussed below.
3.
PHYSICS 215 Lab Notes

6. Errors. All measurements taken during an experiment are subject

to the errors of observation and •lso to the errors inherent in the
apparatus.

Errors of observation, such as inaccurate settings, can be minimized

by obtaining several readings carefully and methodically and then taking
their arithmetical mean.

Errors inherent in the apparatus include such things as friction in

pulleys, the influence of the weight of a string or the slight sideways
motion of a mass vibrating up and down on a spiral spring that may occur
regardless of the care taken to prevent it. Normally an experimenter has
very little control over this type of error and estimating an uncertainty
is difficult.

Physical measurements cannot be taken with absolute precision because

of the limitations of the instrument used for measuring. As a result of
this physical measurements will have an uncertainty associated with them.
The uncertainty may be an accumulation of several effects: the degree of
accuracy with which the instrument can be read, small variations in the
object being measured, reaction time (in the case of timing), unsteadiness
in a meter reading, and many others. The size and importance of each
uncertainty must be carefully considered and a reasonable value assigned.

Another type of error, called accidental, is due to events which are

beyond the control of the observer, such as air currents or vibrations in a
room causing an unexpected motion of some part of the apparatus.

Mistakes in calculations, in recording, etc., are not experimental

errors and should not be considered.

7. Graphs. Wherever possible, the results of an experiment should be

presented in graphical form. Not only does a graph "provide the best means
of averaging a set of observations, but the dependence between the
quantities is clearly shown.

In plotting the results, the dependent variable should be plotted as

the ordinate on the y-axis, and the independent variable as the abscissae
on the x-axis. The scale used should be a convenient one for arithmetical
work and should be large enough for the graph to occupy as much of the
page as possible.

Always give the graph a title indicating which two quantities are
plotted. Label each axis to show the quantity and unit that it represents.
Each point on the graph is an actual observation and should be made to
stand out by surrounding it with a small circle.

The points plotted will not likely fall along a smooth curve since
most experimental data is subject to various errors. The curve, however,
should be drawn as a smooth curve in such a way as to represent an average
of all the points.
4.
PHYSICS 215 Lab Notes

6raph of Oefle_
c tion as a Function of Force

100

90

80
"11'1
Ql
Ql
'-01
Ql
70 0

-
0

-
II

(f)
Q)
60 ::>
·-
Q)
0
L
C')

-
Q)
0 ..
LU
c 50 _J
CI:
0
.,_. u
...... (f)

--
'V
u
Q)

Q) 40
0

30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Force (Newtons)
5.
PHYSICS 215 Lab Notes

8. Significant Figures. Standard notation is the only reliable

method for displaying the number of significant figures in a set of data.
This notation is a method of writing numbers as multiples of integral
powers of ten. This system has the advantage of displaying the number's
significant figures with greater clarity. For example, the number 172,400
in standard notation is 1.724 x 10 5 to 4 significant figures, 1.7240 x 105
to 5 significant figures, or 1.7 x 10 5 to 2 significant figures. If the
number is left as 172,400, it would be assumed to have 6 significant
figures. As another example, 0.0054890 to 5 significant figures is
5.4890 x 10- 3 , to 3 significant figures, 5.49 x l0-3.

In experimental data the number of significant figures is determined

by the accuracy of the data taken. Thus, if a length is measured as 1.740
metres, and the uncertainty is estimated to be ±0.02m, then the length
will be recorded as 1.74 ± 0.02m. Note that even though the length was
measured to 4 significant figures, only 3 can be justified when
considering the uncertainty.

9. Multiplication and Division. In multiplying or dividing, the

number of significant figures to be retained in the results should be
equivalent to the value with the least number of significant figures.
This is illustrated in the following example. The length of a cylinder
measured by a vernier caliper is 3.50 em; the diameter measured by a
micrometer caliper is 1.4474 em. The value n is given as 3.1416. It is
required to find the volume~ Substituting in the equation
2
Volume • n x (Diameter) x Length, gives
4
2 2
Volume • 3.1416 x <1 • 4474 x 10 - m) x 3.50 x 10-2 m
4

• 5.7588541 X 10-6 m3

which, when only three significant figures are retained becomes 5.76 x
10- 6 m3 , a result which is accurate to the degree of the measurements.
The figures discarded are meaningless.

In logarithmic computation there should be as many places retained in

the mantissae as there are significant figures in the data. Accuracy of
results cannot be improved by using tables more accurate than the data.

NOTE: Until the final result is obtained, it is often worthwhile to keep

one-more doubtful figure than indicated above.
PHYSICS 215 6.
THE ESTIMATION OF UNCERTAINTIES

PART I

The following is an introduction to the problem of uncertainties,

and provides the student entering Physics with simple rules-of-thumb for
estimating uncertainties in an experiment. It should be understood that
these rules are neither perfect nor inflexible, but simply the basis for
becoming familiar with the nature of uncertainties.

There are three stages in any experiment where the experimenter

must be concerned with uncertainties:

i) in taking data,
ii) in calculating results,
iii) in forming conclusions.

Since each of these is a separate topic, they will be dealt with

separately.

I. MEASUREMENTS :

Every physical measurement has an uncertainty associated with it.

The experimenter must ask, "How certain am I of this measurement?" The
following rules-of-thumb are provided to help in answering this
question.

a) Reading a scale when the position is clear and stationary:

Most scales can be read to one of the following degrees of

accuracy; depending on the size of the division:

i) the nearest division,

ii) the nearest 1/2 division,
iii) the nearest 1/5 division.

Tests (which anyone can perform) show that attempting to read any scale
to the nearest 1/10 division will seldom yield more accurate results
than reading to the nearest 1/5 division.

The rule-of-thumb is this: Record as the uncertainty one half the

distance between two closest readings that can be distinguished, i.e.,

i) ± 1/2 division,
ii) ± 1/4 division,
iii) ± 1/10 division.

The experimenter must decide for himself into which category his scale
falls.
7.
PHYSICS 215 Estimation of Uncertainties

Example:

The scale shown below has a pointer whose position is clear and
fixed. The scale is large enough to be estimated to the nearest 1/5
division. The uncertainty is therefore ± 1/10 division. Since one
division is 0.1 on the scale, the measurement is 2.34 ± 0.01. Note the
last digit in the measurement is an even number.

2 3

111111111111111 , j I l l !

T
b) Reading a scale when the position is unclear or moving:

In this case, there is a range over which the experimenter is

unsure of the position in question. The uncertainty for this case may
be taken as plus-or-minus one half the range observed.

Example:

The position on the scale is blurred, and about the only thing that
can be said is that it lies somewhere between 2.1 and 2.5. The range is
then: (2.5 - 2.1) • 0.4 so that the measurement is recorded as
2.3 ± 0.2.

Note that although the position of the pointer can still be read
accurately, it is no longer certain where the pointer should be.

2 3

TT
These rules hold also for measurements involving adding masses to a
pan, measuring time with a stopclock, etc.

Uncertainty Types:

Uncertainties can be expressed in a number of ways. If a quantity

x has an uncertainty Ax, expressed in the same units as x (e.g.,
(25.2 ± O.l)cm ), then Ax is called the 'Absolute Uncertainty'
associated with x.
8.
PHYSICS 215 Estimation of Uncertainties

If on the other hand, x has an uncertainty e, expressed as a per-

centage (e.g., 25.2 em± 0.4%), Ex is called the 'Relative Uncertainty'
associated with x.

Obviously, then:
•
II. CALCULATIONS:

Calculations fall into three basic categories:

a) additions and subtractions, multiplication by a constant;

b) multiplications and divisions, raising to the power of an
exponent;
c) trigonometric calculation.

Again these three different cases have three different rules.

a) Addition and Subtraction

Let us consider the formula:

Y=A+B.

Suppose that A has an uncertainty of aA, and B has an uncertainty of ~B.

Then the worst that can happen is that A becomes A + aA and B becomes
B + ~B. Then Y becomes:

Y+ ~y = A+ M + B+ ~B = Y + aA + ~B.

Then ~y = M + ~B. Now let us see what happens if instead we have:

Y = A - B.

Then the case A+ A+ aA and B + B + ~B is no longer the worst case,

since

Y+ ~y = (A + M) - (B + ~B) = Y + aA - ~B

and if 6A = ~B, then ~y = 0. So we must take B + B - ~B. Then

Y+ ~y = (A + aA) - (B - ~B) =Y+ aA + ~B ,

which is exactly what we found for the first case. So, in general, a
formula of this type will have the uncertainty given by

~y • (M + ~B)

in which we use 'Absolute Uncertainties'.

9.
PHYSICS 215 Estimation of Uncertainties

The question arises what to do if one of the terms of a formula

such as the one above is multiplied by a constant, as in the case below:

Y • -2A.
This can be rewritten:

Y • -A - A,
so that

t.Y • M + M • 2•M • 1-21 • M.

In other words, if a measurement is multiplied by a constant, the
Absolute Uncertainty must be multiplied by the magnitude (absolute
value) of that constant.

Example:

The following formula is used to determine the wavelength of a

standing wave from the distance between node positions:

A • 2 <Pl - p2).
Suppose:
pl - (52.4 ± 0.1) em

p2 - (38.6 ± 0.1) em
Then

so that:

A • 2 • [(0.524 ± 0.001)m- (0.386 ± 0.001)m] • (0.276 ± 0.004)m

b) Multiplication and Division:

A slightly different situation occurs in multiplication. Consider

the formula:

Again, the worst thing that can happen is A + A+t.A and B + B+t.B. Then:

Y + (A+ t.A)•(B + t.B) • A•B + t.A•B + A•t.B + t.A•t.B.

This can be rewritten:

y + Y(1 + M + t.B + t.A • t.B) since Y • A•B.
A B A B
10.
PHYSICS 215 Estimation of Uncertainties

The numbers ~ and ~ are already quite small so that when we

A B
multiply them together we get a number so small that it can be ignored.
So:
Y + Y(l + ~ + 6B) • Y + Y(~ + ~B) • y + ~y •
A B A B
Thus:
~y = y ( M + A».) •
A B
This looks complicated, but we can simplify it by dividing through by Y:
~y • ~ + ~B
Y A B ,
or:

This also holds for division, just as the rule for addition also
holds for subtraction.

How do we apply this to using exponents? For example:

We can rewrite this:

y.1..l.
A A
so that

This means that if a measurement is raised to a certain power, the

Relative Uncertainty must be multiplied by the absolute value of that
power.

Example:

The formula below is used to calculate the extension constant of a

spring from its behaviour as a Simple Harmonic Oscillator:
k 41t2M
-!2
Suppose
T • (10.00 ± 0.05) sec

M - (lOO ± 1) x 10- 3 kg
11.
PHYSICS 215 Estimation of Uncertainties

Then
Ek• 2 •ET+EM

0.05 s
10 • 00 s • 0.005 or 0.5 %
E •
T

1 g
EM • 100 • 0.01 or 1%
8
so
Ek • 2 • (0.5%) + 1% • 2%
and
k • 3.95 x lo- 2 N·m-1 ± 2%.

(The Relative Uncertainty is ~multiplied by the factor 4n2.)

This result can easily be converted to Absolute Uncertainty by

taking 2% of k:

Note that Absolute Uncertainties always have units and are thus
written inside the brackets, with the units outside:
A • (27.6 ± 0.4)xlo-2 m.

Conversely, Relative Uncertainties never have units, and are

expressed as a percentage after the units:

k • 3.95 x 10- 2 N·m-1 ± 2%.

c) Trigonometric Calculation:

If we have y • sin (x ± ~), then by expansion

y • sin x cos ~ ± cos x sin ~x

since, for small ~x, cos ~ =1

then y • sin x ± cos x sin ~ (in degrees)

or • sin x ± t.x cos x, (~ in radians)

Similarly, for y • cos(x ± ~),

- cos X ± sin x sin ~X (in degrees)

or • COS X ± ~ sin x, (~x in radians)

12.
PHYSICS 215 Estimation of Uncertainties

III. CONCLUSIONS:

Having found a result and established the uncertainty associated

with it, it is usually desirable to compare the result either with
another result or an accepted or known value. The experimenter must
then decide whether the two figures are close enough to be declared
consistent, or whether a factor must be found which will account for the
inconsistency. This is where the estimated uncertainty is finally used.

If the results differ by an amount less than the estimated

uncertainty, the results are declared consistent. Otherwise, they must
be declared inconsistent and a cause found for the discrepancy.

Example:

The value of 'g' found in an experiment was

The accepted value, taken from the Handbook of Physics was

(981.014 ± 0.001) cm·s-2.

In this case, the uncertainty for the accepted value is much smaller
than that for the experimental result and therefore will be neglected.

To convert the Relative Uncertainty to Absolute Uncertainty, then

(Note that the actual value of 0.92 m•s-2 was rounded off to 0.9 m·s-2
as the value of 'g' was quoted to the nearest 0.1 m•s- 2 only.)

The difference between the results is:

(Again, we have rounded off the accepted value of 'g' to keep the
correct number of significant figures.) Since this difference is less
than the uncertainty of 0.9 m•s- 2 , the two values are declared
consistent.
13.
PHYSICS 215 Estimation of Uncertainties
IV. SUMMARY:

The reader should now be aware that even with the rules above,
there is still a large amount of responsibility which lies with the
experimenter, to decide which rules fit the conditions of his
experiment.

The simplified rules are summarized below.

I. Measurements:

a) clear, stationary values

If scale can be read to Uncertainty

nearest division 1/2 division

nearest 1/2 division 1/4 division
nearest 1/5 division 1/10 division

b) unclear or changing values

Uncertainty is 1/2 the total range over which

the value is uncertain.

In general, the uncertainty is 1/2 the difference between the two

closest values that can be distinguished.

II. Calculations:

a) addition and subtraction

Y • c•A + B, Y • c•A - B

Use Absolute Uncertainty

6Y • lei • 6A + 6B

b) multiplication and division

y • An • B , y
14.
PHYSICS 215 Estimation of Uncertainties

Use Relative Uncertainty:

c) trigonometric calculation

y sin(x ± f>x), use f>Y = sin t.x cos x in degrees

or = t.x cos x t.x in radians

Y = cos(x ± f>x), use t.Y sin t.x sin x in degrees

or = t.x sin x t.x in radians

Y = tan(x ± t.x), use f>Y = Ax

cos 2 x
t.x in radians I
III. Conclusions:

Comparing two values:

Y ± f>Y , Z ± t.Z •

If IY - zj is less than t.Y + t.Z ,

the results are consistent.

If IY- zj is greater than t.Y + t.Z,

the results are inconsistent.
15.
PHYSICS 215 Estimation of Uncertainties
PART II

There are two new topics covered at this level. The first is
Random Errors; a study of this topic leads directly into the second - an
improvement on the formulae used for finding uncertainties in
calculations.

V. Random Errors:

Suppose that a quantity x being measured has a true (or mean) value
of x 0 • The probability of finding, on measurement, that x is equal to
x 0 is not 100%. In other words, if

lx - xo I • t.x
there is always a finite probability of finding a t.x *0. If we take a
large number of readings, and plot l:lx against a number of times each
value of llx is observed (N), we get a symmetrical curve about zero:

-cr 6X
Fig .

By looking at the curve, we see that the values of x observed will

have a spread around the mean value x 0 • We also see that no matter how
far we go out the curve, it never reaches zero, so there is always a
finite possibility that we will observe a given value of x, no matter
what the value is.

Does this mean that the uncertainty is infinity? It does not,

because we can always find two points that have most of the values
between them. The most common points used are ± a; chosen so that
roughly two-thirds (68 ••••• %) of the area under the curve lies between
+ a and - a. In other words, if we take a measurement of x, there is a
68 •••• ~% probability that it will lie between x 0 +a and x 0 - a. (The
number 68 ••• is chosen for mathematic reasons which we will not go
into.) r( 'Xo-fi< :(< 11--J. s~)~{l)q
The value a is called the standard deviation of the curve. ~( bt- 0
' 6J - [~
16.
PHYSICS 215 Estimation of Uncertainties

The question now arises, "How can we estimate a for a given

experiment?" This is done as follows:

Suppose that we have taken a large number of observations of x.

Then the first step is to obtain an estimate of the true value, x 0 , by
taking the mean of the values of x observed:

where n is the number of observations for x.

We then find the root-mean-square deviation of the values of x

~ "'') about x:
.-l!:.
~
SRMS = n - 1
Sm • standard deviation of the mean
= SRMs/lii

The factor (n - 1), rather than n , is used on the bottom, since if n =

then x
= x, and in that case SRMS would be zero, which is nonsense.
'f'-· .(
It is offered without proof that SRMS is the best estimate of a.
It should be apparent, however, that as n + =, SRMS~ 0. Rather,
SRMS + a which is a fixed number. It should at the same time be
apparent that as n + =, x -
+ x 0 , and the uncertainty in the estimated x
gets smaller.
I l /. ~- ; ,. '1-~:~ ~ ()
Example: ~(; \ ~,¢J • WN' '1- )

1)
"- ..L ' ~/!
The following readings were taken for the period of a pendulum: ---
T (s)

10.10
10.20
10.00
9.90 All readings ± 0.05 s
10.10
9.80
10.10
10.30
10.10

T = 10.01 s
17.
PHYSICS 215 Estimation of Uncertainties

J'r(Ti - 10.07 s) 2
SRMs(T) • 9 - 1 • ± 0.15 s

sm - ± 0 • 15 s !19 - ±0. 0 5 s •

Thus the result is:

y- (10.07 ± 0.05) s.

2) The following readings were taken for the mass of a 10 gram mass:

m (g)

10.10 10.10
10.10 10.10
10.20 10.10 All readings ± 0.05 g.
10.10 10.10
10.10 ~v v / S

Now:

m • 1.011 x 10-2kg

SRMs • ± 3 x 10- 5kg sm = ± 1 x 10-s kg.

Note, however, that SRMS and Sm are a good deal smaller than the
original uncertainty of ± 5 x 10-~g quoted. The uncertainty we quote
is actually a rough estimate of SRMs·
18.
PHYSICS 215 Estimation of Uncertainties

VI. Use of Uncertainties in Calculations:

In part I we derived the following formula for calculating the

uncertainty in Y = CA + B, where C is a constant:

6Y = lei •6A + 6B •
Now suppose that A and B are similar readings, such as two
positions on a meter stick, and that Y is the distance between the two
positions.

Then the uncertainties in A and B are identical, and according to

the above formula:

6Y = 2M •

In the section above, we saw that the values for A formed a bell-shaped
curve around the mean, with a as the uncertainty. Let us look again at
this curve:

Fig. 2

The quantity A has a definite probability of assuming the value

A 0 + M. Similarly, the quantity B has the same probability that it
will assume the value Bo + ~B, since 6B = M in this case. Let us call
this probability N1 • Now what is the probability that Y will assume the
value Yo + 6Y?

Since 6Y = 2•M, we must simultaneously have A= A0 + M, and

B • Bo + 6B. The probability is therefore the product of the two
probabilities for A and B:

NY = Nl 2 N( /.\
Jli~ ' \l ... ' )/ \
'

;
19.
PHYSICS 215 Estimation of Uncertainties

Since N1 is less than 1, NY is less than N1 • It is obvious, then, that

the curve for Y must have the following appearance:

Fig . 3
It is apparent that o for this curve is less than ~Y. But ~y is
supposed to be an estimate of o. We must therefore revise our estimate.
The formula below is offered without proof as the best estimate of ~Y:

In general:

The previous estimate of ~y for a formula of the type Y • An•B was

The above argument can be shown to hold for this case also, so that:

or in general

eY • /n2 ~~A 2 + ~~B 2 •

20.
PHYSICS 215 Estimation of Uncertainties

Example:

The following is the formula for finding the density of a sphere

from its mass, m, and radius, r:
p = _Jm__ = .L. mr- 3 •
4nr 3 4n
The data obtained were:

m = (10.0 ± 0.05) g

r = (5.00 ± 0.01) mm

then

E = O.OS g X 100% = 0.5%

m 10.0 g
Er = 0 •01 mm x 100% = 0.2%
5.00 mm
so that

E
p
= le m2 + (-3)2 E 2
r

= lco.5i.) 2 + 9(0.2%) 2

= /o.61% 2= ± o.a%.

Hence:

Note that the old estimate would have been:

0.5% + 3(0.2%) = 1.1%

which is considerably larger.
21.
PHYSICS 215 Estimation of Uncertainties

VII. Summary:

I. The observed values of a quantity x will spread around the true

value of x 0 according to the following curve:

The width of the curve is determined by a, which is an inherent

property of the particular quantity being measured. It depends
principally on the apparatus and the care with which readings are taken.
About two-thirds of the values of x observed will fall within a of x 0 •

The best estimate of a is:

SRMS • sm - standard deviation of

n - 1 the average value

- rn:SRMS

II. In a formula of the type:

Y • CA + B

the uncertainty may be best taken as:

In a formula of the type:

we use
PHYSICS 215 SYMBOLS USED IN ELECTRONICS 22.
Resistor Color Code Chart

Color lst and 2nd Fi.gures Multi:Elier

Black 0 None
..:;:
=== ~
~
~
~ r;· ~
~ ~
Brown
Red
1
2
0
00
LlMultiplier
Tolerance .
Orange
Yellow a5 000
o,ooo
oo,ooo
I...---
1st and 2nd significant
Green
Blue
Violet
6 ooo,ooo
o,ooo,ooo
figures
Gray ~ oo,ooo,ooo
White 9 ooo,ooo,ooo
Tolerance band Gold ± 5%

~~
Silver ±10%
no band ±20%
--!illllflll~ ~p:- ~
battery, d-e single cell resistor variable potentiometer
voltage source resistor

l
~ -$ -®~ I
_j_
ground
-- -40--
capacitor
vacuum vacuum p-n-p n-p-n semiconductor or
diode triode transistor diode common

I ~~
-0-- ~P-
~
__/()(f()Yl--

sig 1 ammeter choke or c:~:le variable d-e

inductor transformer voltage source
source
PHYSICS 215 23.

RULES FOR WORKING WITH IADIOISOTOPES

1. DO ROT EAT, DRINK OR SMOKE in areas where radioactive material is

being used.

2. Do not pipette radioactive material by mouth.

3. Lab coats or protective clothing should be worn in the lab at all

times.

4. Use disposable gloves when there is any chance of contamination. Do

not handle contaminated articles with bare hands.

5. Do not put gloves into regular waste bins. Deposit gloves into
specially designated waste bins.

6. Work on absorbent liners or trays for all radioisotope work.

7. Monitor area for contamination. Decontaminate if necessary.

(See lab instructor).

8. Monitor self (hands, forearms, lab coat) for contamination.

(See lab instructor).

9. Wash hands after completion of the experiment.

Remember that if radioactive material is spilled or contamination is

found, let the instructor know. It is important not to spread the
radioactive material around to other areas.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 2

CHARGE TO MASS RATI 0 OF THE ELECTRCN

(Magnetron Method)

<EJECT:

To observe the electromagnetic properties of electrons accelerated

in a magnetron and to determine the charge to mass ratio of the
electron.

REFERENCES:

C.N. Wall and R.B. Levine, Physics Laboratory Manual. QC 'J5 W3

G.P. Barnwell and J.J. Livingood, Experimental Atomic Physics. ~ c ll ! t+ 32 t 3;

INTR CDUCTI 00:

The electron is the smallest fundamental particle with a finite

mass and was also the first to be discovered and investigated by
Thomson and others in the first decade of the twentieth century. As a
constituent part of the atom and in experiments dealing with scattering,
the electron must be dealt with using the laws of quantum mechanics.
However, in the experiments by which it was first discovered as a free
particle, it acts as a classical particle with a well defined mass m and
charge e. Electric currents are generally transmitted by the flow of
electrons (or in some cases by the movement of positive "holes" in an
array of electrons). The electronic charge is the smallest known
electric charge and is defined as the fundamental unit of charge.

The free electron is subject to the laws of the classical

electro-magnetism and since electrons can be obtained easily with long
mean free paths in an evacuated system, experiments on electron
trajectories can easily be carried out. Simple mechanics shows that
such experiments can only lead to an accurate determination of the ratio
e/m and information as to the absolute value of either of these
quantities must be obtained from a different type of experiment such as
that of Millikan.

THEORY:
+
The force F (in newtons) acting on an electron moving in a field of
+
magnetic induction B (in Webers • m- 2 ) is given by
+ + +
F • -e (v x B) (1)
2.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 2

(F is called the Lorentz force), where v is the velocity of the electron in

m•sec- 1 and e is the electronic charge (c 1.6 • 10- 19 coulombs).

A magnetron is a diode consisting of a filament along the axis of a

cylindrical anode. When a magnetic field is applied along the axis of the
cylinder the electrons traverse curved paths with greater curvatures the
greater the field strength. Thus, for very strong fields, the electrons
emitted by the filament will fail to reach the anode. The general form of
the graph obtained when the anode current for a given anode potential is
plotted against magnetic field strength is shown in Figure 2.1. The cut-off
is not sharp owing to the effects of space charge, spread of initial
velocities of electrons, potential drop along filament, asymmetry of
electrodes, etc. With some simplifying assumptions it can be shown that

B
c
= lb ~·
e
v112 (2)

where b is the radius of the anode and V the anode potential. The value of
Be is given by the intersection of the magnetic field strength axis and the
straight descending line (see Figure 2.1).

The magnetron has a practical importance because when the electrons

fail to reach the anode they are being strongly accelerated and an
accelerated charge emits radiation. In a more complex form (the cavity
magnetron) this device became one of the first powerful sources of
electromagnetic radiation of centimeter wavelength.

Consider the following equations of motion of the accelerated

electrons:

(3)

(4)

As there is no component of E perpendicular to the radius vector, it is

more convenient to transform x and y into polar co-ordinates r and e. The
velocity v can be resolved into two components: vr = 4L along the radius
dt
and ve =r ~ at right angle to the radius. Thus
dt
VX = Vr COS e - Ve sin e, Vy = Vr Sin e + Ve COS e

and Ex = Er cos e, Ey ~ Er sin e.

Substitute into equations (3) and (4) and simplify, we get

3.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 2

Fig. A

m(v de + dve) • e B v (5)

r dt dt z r

2 dr de + r d2e • e Bz dr (6)
dt dt dt 2 m dt
1 ~ (r2 de) • e Bz dr (7)
1"" dt dt m dt
Integrating by separating variables and assuming that
dr • de • 0 when r z a
dt dt

we obtain de • e Bz (1 - a2) (8)

dt 2m ~
e B
and d
(_!.)2 • 2 !_ V - (--Z)2 r2 (1 _ a 2 )2 (9)
dt m 2m ~
If dr • 0 when r • b
dt
(10)

or if b >> a

(11)
4.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 2

i 0 (mA)
1dee11zed curve

Fig. 2. 1

EA

<CATHODE>

Fig. 2.2
5.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 2

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:

The tungsten filament diode (Ferranti GRD7) provided has a

cylindrical non-magnetic anode and two guard rings co-axial with the
filament. The guard rings assure a homogeneous anode-cathode field and
eliminate "fringe" effects. The diode is placed at the centre of the
solenoid designed so that the magnetic field is parallel to the
filament, uniform over the region of the cylindrical anode and has the
value

where B = strength of the field in Tesla

N = the total number of turns
L = the length of the solenoid
I • the magnetizing current
D • the average diameter.

The magnetic field should be measured in the central region with a

Gaussmeter.

Mechanical dimensions of the GRD7 Diode:

Anode length= 14.7 mm

Anode diameter = 6.5 mm
Filament diameter • 0.125 mm
Effective filament length = 14.7 mm

PROCEDURE:

Set up the circuit as shown in Figure 2.2. Ask your instructor to

check your circuit before proceeding.

NOTE: To avoid overheating, the solenoid current should be switched off

whenever possible.

Place the solenoid over the GRD7 diode, set the plate voltage to
150 volts and note the milliammeter reading for zero current in the
solenoid. Increase the current I in the solenoid in approximately
half-ampere steps and record the milliammeter readings (graph of
milliammeter readings ia versus s olenoid currents iH can be plotted
directly).

Record (or plot) more detailed readings in the region of the

cut-off value. Repeat this procedure for anode voltages of 125, 100,
75, 50 volts and, on the same graph, plot ia versus iH.
6.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 2

If Ic is the field current in amperes corresponding to Be, then

from (2) , I c « v112 • or

Ic = A • vl/ 2 (12)
and

ln Ic = 1/2 ln V + ln A (13)

where

A = Ia ~__________
--~e
(L 2 + n 2 )_

iJ.o Nb

Using log-log graph paper, plot a graph of Ic as a function of V and

determine the intercept A, hence calculate the ratio of e/m for
electrons.

In your discussion note the following:

(1) the principal reasons for the indefiniteness of cut-off,

(2) the effects of the earth's magnetic field c~ 0.6 gauss) ,

(3) the principal source of error.

PHYSICS 215 Experiment 3

CHARGE TO MASS RAT! 0 OF THE ELECTROO

OBJECT: To observe the e1ectromagn~tic properties of electrons

accelerated in a magnetic field and to determine the charge to mass J(?j.t/J; ft 1'5 j,Jj
ratio of the electron. 1J 1 • ,• !1 · . 14_ f
(:,/1), ~ / t+-o-{ RJJ. L~nr~ .. ~~~ to ..,..~-~~~ f' ~"'~ _
INTRCDUCTIOO: - 6i /1a'll 'v-). p~f u ~ \ _ ., ' ' · ) ~ t: £X • 4q_..
~ "b , I . ' c~ Vp-!J 7 ~ ( ~ ., ~ ~ "· 1
The electron is the smallest fundamental particle with a finite
mass and was also the first to be discovered and investigated by
Thomson and others in the first decade of the twentieth century. As a
constituent part of the atom and in experiments dealing with scattering,
the electron must be dealt with using the laws of quantum mechanics.
However, in the experiments by which it was first discovered as a free
particle, it acts as a classical particle with a well defined mass m and
charge e. Electric currents are generally transmitted by the flow of
electrons (or in some cases by the movement of positive "holes" in an
array of electrons). The electronic charge is the smallest known
electric charge and is defined as the fundamental unit of charge.

The free electron is subject to the laws of the classical

electro-magnetism and since electrons can be obtained easily with long
mean free paths in an evacuated system, experiments on electron
trajectories can easily be carried out. Simple mechanics shows that
such experiments can only lead to an accurate determination of the ratio
e/m and information as to the absolute value of either of these
quantities must be obtained from a different type of experiment such as
that of Millikan.

THEORY:
~

The force F (in newtons) acting on an electron moving in a field of

~

magnetic induction B (in Webers • m-2) is given by

~ ~ ~

F = -e (v x B) (1)

. Since, in our apparatus, the electrons are emitted at right angles

to the field (1) reduces to

F .. evB (2)

The force is at right angles to the velocity, so the electrons will move
in a circular path of radius r with a force given by
mv2
F • -- (3)
r

Equating (2) and (3) we get

evB • ~
r
.!. • L (4)
m Br
':LrNvJ io (lA 1 'AwJ:.
2.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 3

In order to eliminate the velocity from (4) we use the fact that the
kinetic energy of the electron is related to the accelerating potential
v by
2
y= eV (5)

Substituting equation (5) into (4),

_g_ = _lY_ (6)
m B2r2
This can be rearranged to give
L=_g_~ (7)
B2 m 2V

Thus, a graph of l_ as a function of ~will have a slope of _g_ •

B2 2V m

-· To set up the magnetic field, two coils are arranged a distance 2d

apart. If the effective radius of the coils is R, and the current
through them is I, then

(8)

\ ~ 0 = 1 . 26 x-~ and N is the number of turns on one coil.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS :

In this fine beam tube, electrons are emitted from a directly

heated cathode K through a plate with a small central hole and
accelerated by a voltage applied to the anode A (Figure 3.1).

The fine beam tube is filled with neon under low pressure so that
the electrons ionize the neon, showing their path as a luminous ring .

This tube is then mounted to a base between the two coils

Figure 3.1

so as to immerse the tube in the magnetic field of the coils.

3.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 3

In addition a scale projector is an image of a

scale in the plane of the electron
~x-~-

Figure 3.2

For proper operation the distance from the plastic plate to the
beam should be the same as from the scale to the plastic plat~. The
reflected image of the scale will appear to be superimposed on the
electron beam. This can be verified by moving the head a small distance
- the scale image should not move compared to the electron beam.

PROCEDURE: CAUTHN: HIGH VOLTAGES ARE PRESENT DURING

OPERATIOO - BE CAREFUL!

Connect the circuit of Figure 3.3 and loosen the pressure screw on
the carbon rheostat (this gives maximum resistance).
ASK YCXJR INSTRUCTCR TO CHECK THE CIRCUIT.
Turn both power supplies to "STANDBY" and adjust the carbon rheostat
until the filament glows a dull red. Turn both to "ON" and increase the
anode voltage until a beam is seen (-300V). Increase the coil voltage
until the beam forms a semicircle. Note the effects of the filament
voltage and anode voltage on the sharpness of the beam.

For a fixed value of V () 300V) determine the average beam diameter

for several different values of coil current, calculate a value of e/m
using equation (6).

Discuss the effects of the earth's magnetic field (B • 0.6 gauss)

on the beam and describe how the beam is affected when electrons slow
down.

When the magnetic field is turned on to cause the electrons to

follow a circular path, the kinetic energy of the electrons will have a
value that equals eV only if their path is large enough to touch the
anode. A more accurate expression for the electron's kinetic energy
will be

K.E. • eV(2r/D)
4.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 3

where D is the distance between the cathode and anode, and

e/m = 2V [2r)
Ji7r7 D

Recalculate the value of (e/m) using the above equation. Is this

correction factor important?

coi 1

Fig. 3.3
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 4

PHOTOEMISSION OF ELECTRONS FROM POTASSIUM

REFERENCES: A.C. Melissinos, Experiments in Modern Physics, Chapter 1. QC. 33 M S"'2.

Hoag and Korff, Electron and Nuclear Physics, Chapter 4. QC.../2. 1 rl b 'qJ.
Barnwell and Livingood; Experimental Atomic Physics, Sections
6-8 and 6-9.

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

The experimental observation of the photoelectric effect gives one of

the strongest cases that the energy of the electromagnetic field is
quantized. This very significant experiment interpreted by Einstein was the
basis for the development of quantum physics. It is assumed that
electromagnetic radiation of frequency v is composed of quanta of energy hv.
The universal constant h is called Planck's Constant, the "particles" of
light are called photons.

In the photoelectric effect, a photon of energy hv is absorbed in a

metal and an electron which has been bound with energy $ is released with
kinetic energy mv 2 /2. The conservation of energy is expressed by the
equation

(1)

The photoelectric effect may occur for photons from all regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum as long as the quantum of energy carried by the
photon is greater than the minimum binding energy of the electrons in the
metal. In the optical region of the spectrum where photon energies are a
few electron volts, the photoelectrons can only originate from the least
tightly bound electrons in the metal, Eb in this case will be proportional
to $ the work function for the particular metal. Since these photo-
electrons will have very low kinetic energies only those near the surface of
the metal will escape. For more energetic photons in the x-ray and y-ray
region, where photon energies are above a few kiloe1ectron volts, photo-
electrons may originate from the tightly bound inner shells of the atoms, Eb
in these cases will be the binding energy of the particular shell.

For this experiment the photoelectric effect with optical wave-lengths

will be used to determine Planck's constant h.

If hv > e$, the binding energy of the least tightly bound electrons,
the photo-electrons will be emitted with a spread in kinetic energies from
(hv-e$) to zero. In this experiment light of a known frequency is shone
upon the photo sensitive electrode in a photo-cell and a retarding voltage
is applied to a collection electrode. The maximum energy of photo-electrons
can be determined by measuring the stopping potential, V0 , necessary to
prevent photo-electrons from reaching the collector. Equation (1) may then
be written in the equivalent form
eV 0 • hv-e$

or

(2)
2
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 4

If the limiting retarding voltage V0 is determined for a number of

spectral lines and V is plotted vs v, the slope of the line will be the
0
constant h/e. This affords one of the most accurate ways of determining
this ratio.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS AND INSTRUCTIONS:

The photocathode of the cell has a potassium surface (low work

function) and a platinum wire anode (high work function), so that light in
the wavelength range above about 400.0 nm can cause emission only from the
cathode. However, traces of potassium evaporated from the cathode may
deposit on the anode. High insulation of the cathode is essential in order
that the small photo-currents near cut-off can be measured.

NOTE: Over a period of time some potassium may be deposited

on the anode. This may be removed by heating. Simply
pass a current not exceeding 1 ampere through the anode
for a few seconds and apply 2 or 3 volts negative to
the photocathode in order to collect the evaporated K+
ions.

In this experiment several filters are used to isolate different parts

of the spectrum. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 4.1 and place a
filter in the filter holder. DO NOT focus the light from the strobe lamp
directly onto the photo-cathodeasthis will damage the photo-cell. With
the focusing lens, focus the light onto the black cloth "curtain" in front
of the filter holder. The whole photo-cell assembly can then be moved
forward 11.5 em. This should bring the light in focus with the
photo-cathode. Always put a filter in the holder before you lift the
"curtain."

STROBE LAMP Lens

to EXT Trigger )
Shielded Co-axial cable

Fig 4.1
3
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 4

Set the frequency of the strobe between 40 and 80 Hz and adjust the
oscilloscope TIME/DIV control and TRIGGER (LEVEL/SLOPE) control to obtain a
stationary series of pulses on the display. See your lab instructor for
more details. Figure 4.2 illustrates the way in which the forward and
reverse photocurrents within the photocell vary with the voltage applied
across the cell.

Redietion Input

s
v
g e
-2.0 v. :
i
0
'-----Cut -off

Figure 4.2

Applying a reverse potential to the photo-cathode will decrease the

amplitude of the pulses shown on the oscilloscope display. As the pulse
amplitude decreases, increase the gain on the VOLTS/DIV control until an
accurate measurement of zero amplitude can be observed. Record the
retarding potential. You aay wish to use the Digital Multimeter to obtain
an accurate value for V0 •

Apply a small heating current to the anode (no more than 3 seconds)
and repeat the above measurements for three trials.
4
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 4

Repeat these measurements for the other filters.

Examine the effect of changing the intensity of the light by changing

the frequency of the strobe light and measuring the stopping potential.
Does the shape of the pulses on the display change as the strobe light's
intensity changes? ~

Plot a graph of stopping potential against frequency for the filters.

From this graph determine the slope (Planck's constant). Compare this value
with the accepted value of 6.62 x 10- 3 ~ J•s.

PHOTO-EMISSION EFFECT:

So far we have examined the case where energy is gained by a material

when it is struck by a photon. However, consider now the case where energy
is lost when the photon is produced. A light emitting diode (LED) is a
device which generates photons at a junction. Figure 4.3 shows an LED which
has been biased in the forward direction, and Figure 4.4 shows the
current-voltage curve

-I+
~~t~e~n-t-----------,
Current
Supply

0 ( vforward

Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4

for an LED. The voltage Vb (called the barrier potential) required to

"turn-on" the LED produces an energy loss about equal to that gained by the
photons. Therefore:

Using a constant current power supply (= 20 mA) measure Vb for 3 LED's

and calculate Planck's constant for each. The wavelengths of the 3 LED's
are 670.0 nm (red), 610.0 nm (yellow) and 560.0 nm (green).

Compare this method of calculating Planck's constant to the

photoelectric method.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 9

BALMER SERIES

OBJECT: (a) To calibrate a grating spectrometer using the known

spectral lines of mercury.

(b) To measure the wavelengths of the Balmer series and verify

the Balmer relation for the hydrogen spectra.

THEORY: When an electric discharge is maintained in a gas such as

hydrogen, neon, mercury or sodium vapour, a bright line spectrum is
produced. This was first realized in 1860 by Kirchhoff and Bunsen when
they discovered that each element gave rise to a unique line spectrum
and that no two of these were the same.

The most common simple quantum-mechanical system is the hydrogen

atom. Using numerical analysis, Balmer found that the four lines of
hydrogen spectra in the visible region could be fitted by the
expression

(n ~ 3, 4, 5, and 6 (1)

n' ~ 2 see Figure 9.1)

where b is an empirically determined constant whose value to give A in

nanometres is 364.56 nm. Balmer then applied his formula with higher
values of n to more hydrogen lines in the ultra-violet spectra of stars
and found excellent agreement between calculated and observed
wavelengths. Table I is taken from Balmer's paper.

Wavelength (A) in nm

Name Calculated
of n L using 1 Observed
n2 X
Line Eq. (1)

H 3 .111 656.208 1.52x106 656.210*

a
H~ 4 .063 486.080 2.06X106 486.074*
H 5 .040 434.00 2.30x1o6 434.010*
Hy 6 .028 410.13 2.44x1o6 410.12 *
6
H 7 .020 396.97 2.52x1o6 396.81 t
E
Hl; 8 388.86 388.75 t
H 9 383.50 383.40 t
T)
He 10 379.75 379.50 t
H\ 11 377 . 02 376.75 t

*Lab. source tStars

Table I. Spectrum of hydrogen.

2.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 9

It was not until 1913 that Niels Bohr explained these results,
theoretically. Using the concept formulated by Planck that radiation is
emitted and absorbed in discrete units, Bohr derived the relation for
the energy of an electron in a given orbit:
me z 4 2
E
n
=- -=><--.....-.....
8ea2h2n2
(MKS units) (2)

where m and e are the mass and the charge of the electron respectively,
h is Planck's constant, n is an integer, (e 0 is the permittivity of free
1
space) and Z is the atomic number of the atom.

If an orbiting electron suddenly changes to a different orbit, its

energy in this new position will be different from before. The energy
of the electron in this orbit will be given by

E '
me 4 2
= - --=-=--~
z (3)
n 8E 2h2n'2
0
where n' is a different integer. The energy difference En - En' will be
radiated as a quantum or photon and by Einstein's equation,

(4)

where v is the frequency of the emitted radiation.

Substituting the values of En and En' from equations (2) and (3)
into equation (4),

(:-h- ~)
n n
(5)

Thus !. = ~ = v = or -v (6)
' A. c

4 2
where R me Z = 1.09678 x 10 7 m- 1
= 8e 2h 3c
0
and is called the Rydberg constant for a particular atom (i.e., the
Rydberg constant for hydrogen.)

The Bohr equation, (6), is a general equation which becomes the

Balmer equation, (1), when R = 4/b, n' = 2, n = 3, 4, ••• =,and
wavelengths are replaced by wave numbers.
3.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 9

Figure 9.1, the energy level diagram of the hydrogen atom,

illustrates the transitions between energy levels for several different
series.
Fr..
•ltctrons
0
9+++ 74
-2

-
= 1~ kr"" ~~ ~"" ~ t /
~JI
-4
~
&

t.. -6

-8
~

8 r"" ~ ..

~ -10
~ kr"'
""" """
-12

-14

Figure 9.1

EQUIPMENT: A spectrometer essentially consists of a horizontal table

with a circle graduated in degrees, a collimator, and a telescope. The
telescope and table are capable of independent rotations about the
principal axis of the instrument which passes through the centre of the
circle perpendicular to its plane. These rotations can be measured
accurately by means of a vernier scale provided. The collimater is
commonly attached to the base of the instrument. The axes of the
telescope and collimator should intersect the axis through the centre of
the circle and should always be in the same plane perpendicular to it.

The collimator consists of an adjustable slit placed at the

principal focus of a converging lens. Its purpose is to produce an
image of the slit at infinity; i.e., light diverging from the slit
leaves the lens as a parallel beam. This beam then passes through the
telescope which is focussed for infinity and hence forms an image of the
slit.
4.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 9

Diffr ~tion Gr ~tint

Fig. 9.2 Principle- of a Diffraction Grating spe-ctrome-te-r,

sho~ stop¥ ~tion of light of two difftnnt colours.

ADJUSTMENT OF THE SPECTROMETER:

The eyepiece of the telescope should be focussed on the crosshairs

by sliding it in its tube. Then the telescope should be focussed for
infinity. This may be done by bringing a distant object into focus by
adjusting the length of the telescope tube.

Finally, the collimator should be adjusted by sighting the slit on

the collimator through the telescope. The slit is seen distinctly by
adjusting the draw-tube of the slit without altering the focus of the
telescope. Since the telescope is focussed for infinity, the slit of
the collimator must be at the focus of the collimating lens.

Study the spectrometer and its parts carefully. Make sure that you
understand the function of each part and are able to rotate the
telescope or table by means of the proper controls. Also study the
vernier which is provided for reading the angle settings accurately, and
be sure that you can read it properly. (Each division on the vernier
scale equals 1 minute, i.e. 1/60 of a degree).

NOTE: The grating must be handled with great care. Do not touch either
face of the grating.

PROCEDURE: Before determining the wavelengths of the emission lines of

the hydrogen spectrum, it will be necessary to calibrate the
spectrometer using the well-known spectrum of mercury.
5.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 9

A. Determination of the grating constant "d".

Set up the spectrometer and grating to observe the mercury

spectrum. Note that the spectral lines on one side of the grating
appear to be more intense. Use this side of the grating throughout the
experiment.

Swing the telescope into line with the collimator axis and set the
cross-hairs exactly on the direct image. Read the telescope position
(9 0 ) using the vernier. Next, measure the angles for the mercury
spectral lines in the first order spectrum. Using the wavelengths of
these lines which may be found in CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS HANDBOOK,
calculate an average value of the grating constant d from the familiar
equation.

m~ - d sin e (7)

where m is the order ( m = 1 in this case), ~ is the wavelength of the

line and 9 is the angle through which the telescope has been turned.
Express d in meters.

B. Determination of hydrogen spectra wavelengths.

Place the hydrogen lamp in front of the spectrometer slit and

observe the red, blue-green and violet emission lines. Carefully record
their angular displacements and from the grating constant which was
previously calculated and using equation (7) calculate the wavelength of
the three hydrogen lines. Compare with the accepted values.

To verify the Balmer relation, it is convenient to plot 1/~ of

various Balmer lines against l/n 2 , where n • 3 for the Ha line (red),
n • 4 for the H~ line (blue-green), and n • 5 for the Ry line (violet).
From equation (6), it is obvious that the value for the Rydberg constant
may be calculated from the slope of the graph. How does your value
compare with the accepted value of R for hydrogen?

Question:

Using equation (6), R • 4/b and n' • 2, show how this expression becomes
the Balmer expression.
q
w -' 0
~
At ~
~~~
~
~

~s
,. 6.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 11

PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS

OBJECT: To become familiar with some of the basic properties and uses
of x-rays.

REFERENCES: (1) Physics of the Atom, 2nd Edition, M.R. Wehr

J.A. Richards, Jr.
(2) Concepts of Modern Physics, 2nd Edition, A. Beiser

THEORY: In 1895 w. Roentgen discovered that when fast moving electrons

strike a metallic target, a highly penetrating radiation of unknown
nature was produced; he named this radiation x-rays. Although he failed
to determine the nature of x-rays, he concluded that the rays were
neither charged particles nor light of any sort. However, Max von Laue
in 1912 suggested a method to test the idea that x-rays might be light
of very short wavelength. Realizing that light can be diffracted by a
finely ruled grating, Laue thought that the atoms of a single crystal
might provide the grating needed for the diffraction of x-rays. The
experiment was carried out by Friedrich and Knipping in 1913. The
results of their experiment verified the classical criterion for wave
motion - constructive and destructive interference.

The Laue pattern, an array of dots around an intense central spot,

illustrates, with discernible symmetry, interference of wave motion due
to diffraction.

Late in 1913, W. L. Bragg sought to explain the basic formation of the

Laue diagram very simply; the primary beam of waves is scattered by the
atoms in successive crystal planes and where the path-lengths differ bX
an integral _multiP-1~- ~~_the wavelength ~ t then strength reinforcement
will appear.
111CIDEHT REFLECTED
Bragg assumed that the atoms of a ""-'EFFDtT loiAl.JEFROHT
crystal such as sodium chloride were
arranged in a cubic and regular
three-dimensional pattern. The mass
of a molecule of NaCl is given by
M/N kg, where M is the molecular
weight (58.46 x 10- 3 kg/mole) and N
is Avogadro's number (6.02 x 1023
molecules/mole). The number of
molecules per unit volume is p/M
N
molecules per cubic metre 1 where p
is the density (2.16 x lOj kg m- 3). Figure 11.1
Since NaCl is diatomic the number of
atoms per unit volume is 2p N/M atoms per cubic metre. The distance
therefore between adjacent atoms,
,a

~~ ( tl. ~
(M' i H~ r(\ ~
(/\ 7drr~-=- rl\~
2.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 11

d, in the lattice is derived from the equation

d3 .,_1_
2~
M
or 113
d - (M/2pN) (1)

The first condition for Bragg's "reflection" is that the angle of

incidence e equals the angle of reflection (see Figure 11.1) - this is
as for optical reflection and infers that any detections of the
reflected rays must move through an angle 29, the 2:1 spectrometer
relationship. The second condition is that the reflections from several
Bragg planes must meet in phase, that is, must satisfy the relation

nA. = 2d sin e (2)

where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, .•. , the order of reflection, dis the spacing,

and A. is the wavelength of the x-rays. Consequently the Bragg method is
very useful for the study of the wavelengths of x-rays.

Figure 11.2 illustrates the spectral

distribution of the continuous Cu K<X
radiation with 3 orders of peak
intensities produced by single
crystal Bragg "reflection". The
continuous distribution of 1200
- T
radiation is the result of
CuKB
numerous glancing collisions of
electrons striking the copper anode 800
within the x-ray tube. This is
called "bremsstrahlung" or "braking
radiation" where the maximum energy 400
or minimum wavelength is determined
by the accelerating voltage of the o+-~--~==~~==~~===
tube: 0 -1(11 30 60 90
Figure 11.2 X-ray spectrum of NaCl
crystal.

If the theory of the "inverse photoelectric effect" is valid (W = hv

joules, where W is the energy associated with each quanta, v is the
frequency of radiation and h is Planck's constant) then both emission
and absorption are "quantized" according to Einstein and the maximum
energy then can be determined from

W = h c/A. = eV
or h = (e/c)A.V (4)
3.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 11

where Vis the accelerating potential, 1l' e • 1.6 x lo-19 and

c • 3 x 10 8 m•s-1. - - -- - - - -
The emission lines shown in Figure 11.2 termed CuK~ and CuKa are unique
to emission from a copper target and are due to the elemental
composition of the anode and the energy-levels associated with its
individual electron system. For further study of the "characteristic"
line spectrum, refer to the above mentioned references.

APPARATUS: Teltron Tel-x-ometer x-ray apparatus and accessory kit Tel

582/3/4.
.
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS: The transparent plastic Radiation Scatter
Shield which completely encloses the experimental zone can be opened by ·
moving it sideways with respect to the hinge; the ball-ended spigot will
line up with the left hand or right hand release part and the shield can
be lifted. Due to safety interlocks the shield must be correctly
centred before the high voltage circuit can be activated.

To switch ON rotate the Time Switch to the required time and depress the
Power ON switch (white handle). In some models the power to the machine
is switched on by turning the Power ON key. Both the filament of the
x-ray tube and the pilot lamp (white) will be on. The tube will produce
x-rays only when the red X-RAYS ON button has been depressed; the X-RAYS
I , ~ ., )
ON lamp (red) will be illuminated. To switch OFF the EHT, displace the 'v.~t<r.•"' /l :_' '

Scatter Shield sideways with respect to the hinge.

Note that the Time Switch will also turn off the system. Be careful
that this does~ occur during a photographic exposure.

A set of instructions have been provided with the apparatus describing

the processing of the x-ray film. The following table gives the
developing and fixing times for Filmpak 2. See your laboratory
instructor for instructions on how to insert the chemicals.

Processing Time Developer Fixer

1 minutes 4 minutes

Filmpak 2 2 Ill 3 ml
quantity

Note that for accurate measurement of the quantity of processing liquid,

the syringe rubber base should read 2 ml (or 3 ml for fixer) since
about 1 ml is contained in the plastic tube.
4.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 11

PROCEDURE: At the beginning of each part of this experiment there is a

table showing relevant parts, recommended voltage and current settings,
exposure times and approximate experimental times. Each experimental
station (ES) is numbered from 13 to 30 on the main carriage and from 1
to 4 on the auxiliary carriage-.- The-auxiliary carriage can be mounted
horizontally over the BASIC PORT in the glass dome.

I. Roentgen Observation:

Partsll Ace. Tube Film App. Completion

Potential Current Exposure Time

I 582.003
562.031
30 kV 50 ~.LA 15 min

Cover the glass dome and both signal lamps with the small black cloth
and use the large black cloth over the system to reduce the ambient room
light.

Insert the luminescent screen at ES 14 with the phosphor coating facing

the x-ray tube; locate the carriage arm on the beam axis (26 = 0).

-
Switch on the x-rays and note the circle of luminescence.

Insert the black paper slide (562-P) at ES13 and the screen at ES 20
such that the luminescent screen faces away from the x-ray tube. Remove
the metal back plate from the film cassette (562.031) and place the
slide at ES 14. Observe the image of the backstop and its supporting
wires.

Insert 2 or 3 paper absorbers between the screen and tube. Can you
notice a reduction in luminescence?

II. Detection by Photographic Film:

See instructions with apparatus for development times, etc.

582.002
582.007 30 kV 80 !.lA 15 min 25 min
562.013

Mount the auxiliary slide carriage on the Basic Port and insert the 1 mm
diameter Primary Beam Collimator (582.002) which holds the lithium
fluoride crystal in the Basic Port aperture, assuming that the long axis
of the crystal is vertical. Handle the crystal with care.

Load the filmpak in the cassette, 562.013, and obtain a Laue pattern of
the LiF crystal with the cassette located at ES 2.
s.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 11

The Laue pattern in this experiment illustrates, with discernible

symmetry, interference of wave motion due to diffraction and is intended
to illustrate diffraction of x-rays in a qualitative sense only.

III. Bragg Reflection and X-ray Spectra:

582.001
562.016 30 kV/20 kV 50 !.lA 1 hour
562.015
582.004

Insert the Primary Beam Collimator (582.001) in the Basic Port with the
1 mm slot vertical. Mount the NaCl crystal and its holder on the
crystal post and locate the Primary Beam Collimator (3 mm) 562.016 at ES
13 and Collimator (1 mm) 562.015 at ES 18. Set the voltage to 30 kV.
Zero-set the Slave Plate (the inner rotating plate engraved with two
datum lines on either side) and tighten the knurled Clutch Plate.

Sight through the collimating slits and observe that the primary beam
direction lies in the surface of the crystal. Mount the GM tube at ES
28 and set the GM voltage to 600 volts. Plot a graph of count rate as a
function of angle from 20° = 20° to the maximum setting (29 = 124°) )
taking readings every 2° to 4°. It is important that the "peaks" be
well defined. Therefore, record data in 1° to 2° increments in the
important regions, and 4° to 6° increments in the low count region.
Note the reduction in intensity of the 2nd and 3rd order Ka and K~
emission lines. Repeat the above procedure for 20 kV accelerating
potential up to 29 = 40°. Note that the peak intensities of the
"emission lines" Ka and K~ do not vary in angle, only in intensity.
J -=

Ka or K~ 29 e sin e 2d nA. A.

From equations (1) and (2), complete the above table and determine the
average wavelength of the Ka and K~ lines for the copper atom. Compare ~ ~
these with the accepted values marked on the apparatus. ""(tu l! .·) , rl "'_ /
f\ VV\) l'o{ ' 0' h ' i 0 'fV\

IV. Inverse Photoelectric Effect: ll(rn.., Kf); O·l 38·tul! M

~ ?-.{ft}.) -<) W\
582.001 ~
562.016 30 kV/20 kV 50 !.lA 30 min f -~
562.015 -: - tl ( \~ 't'v\
563.005
6.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 11

With the accelerating voltage set at 30 and 20 kV, record the count rate
as a function of carriage arm setting of 26 c 20° to 26 = 8°. Record
data in 1° increments in the region of 29 larger than 10°, and in
1/2° increments in the region
of 29 less than 10°. Repeat minimum
with the LiF cyrstal. Plot a 1200 carriage
graph of count rate as a
eetting
function of angle (29) as
shown in Figure 11.3.
800
E
Extrapolate the 0.
u
theoretical intercepts, -400
29min, and from Eq.(4)
calculate Planck's
constant. How does this 0+-~~~~~~P---~~---
compare with the accepted 0 5 t 15 20
value h = 6.62 x 10-3 4 \./VV~
joules-seconds. Df7::: .s•
1
'o
LJfl ==
(0~
~ n ~ Figure 11.3

v. Radiography (Optional experiments only)

(1) The Phantom

562.012
562.033 30 kV 80 ~ 30 sec 15 min
562.013

Place the auxiliary slide carriage on the Basic Port. Mount the blank
slide (562.033) at ES 4. Load the film cassette with the filmpak and
place it in ES 30.

Insert the Phantom slide (562.012) in ES 29 and expose and develop the
film as recommended.

The construction of the phantom is a sandwich of three equal thicknesses

of plastic which is approximately "tissue equivalent" with respect to
absorption. The central layer has a bone-shaped hole cut in it which is
filled with calcium carbonate, about "bone equivalent", and three pieces
of lead shot.

Different thicknesses of calcium carbonate are traversed by x-rays; (1)

the thickness of the filling in the bone-hole; (2) the voids created by
the movement of the lead shot in the powder and (3) the seepage into the
separate planes of the plastic layers.
7.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 11

(2) Buried Elements

584.002
564.004 20 kV 80 !.LA 2 min 15 min
562.013

Place the nickel filter (564.004) at ES 2. Load a film into the film
cassette (562.013) and insert this in ES 30 with the circular frame
facing the x-ray tube. Place buried elements in ES 29 and expose as
recommended .

A Greek Tragic Mask (the primary image) is silk-s creen printed in white
lead-based ink on a white card and then overprinted with the Comic Mask
(the secondary image) in black ink.

To reveal the primary image with maximum contrast against the background
requires soft radiation; the use of 20 kV accelerating potential.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 12

RADIOACTIVITY

OBJECT: To determine the u of a Geiger-Mueller tube, and

investigate the nature of absorption of radiation.

THEORY:
All radioactive radiations, whether they be charged particles ~3
(alpha or beta rays), or gamma rays, have the property of ionizing air, ~
and other gases. This ionizing property is utilized in the operation of
the Geiger-Mueller tube (G-M tube), which is designed for the detection
of radiation.
..!.-:I (.
The end window G-M tube consists of a positively charged wire f •
(anode) mounted along the axis of a negatively charged cylinder. The
tube is filled with the gas to be ionized, usually a mixture of argon
and methane at a pressure-of about 10 em of Hg. One end of the tube is
made very thin (in an end window G-M tube) in order that low energy
radiatT ons which would be absorbed in the thick walls of the tube can be
detected.

When a ~ particle or y photon enters the G-M tube some of the

energy of this incident particle (or photon) can be transferred to gas
molecules along its path. The absorption of this energy by the gas
molecules results in ionization whereby an outer electron is ejected
from the molecule.

The ejected electrons being negatively charged are attracted to the

positively charged wire of the G-M tube, the positively charged ions are
attracted to the negatively charged cylinder.

When the potential difference between the wire and the cylinder is
sufficiently high, the "primary" electrons and ions on their path toward
the electrodes can acquire sufficiently high velocities (i.e. kinetic
energies) in short distances between collisions with the gas molecules
that they in turn can ionize the gas molecules producing additional
(secondary) electrons and ions. These secondary electrons can by the
same process produce still more secondary electrons. Thus an
'avalanche' of electrons will be collected by the central anode,
containing many more than the original number of primary electrons
produced in the gas by the radioactive radiation. The resultant current
pulse can be amplified and used to operate a counting device or speaker.
See Figure 12.1.

PLATEAU:

When there is a fixed distance between the radioactive source and

the G-M tube, i.e. the number of radioactive particles passing through
the G-M tube per minute is constant, the counts per minute (C.P.M.) will
depend on the voltage across the electrodes in the G-M tube. When the
voltage across the G-M tube is increased, 'counting' suddenly commences
at a "threshold voltage" then slowly increases over a 'plateau' region
2.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 12

G/M tube Coupling

Cepecltor

~lse
End et
Window
llml)llfier
end counter ~
0
High Vol-te-g-e---------o r'J\\~ ~~
o' ~

Figure 12.1: The Geiger Counter

(i.e. the C.P.M. vs voltage curve has a small positive slope in this
region). At the high end of this plateau the count rate increases
rapidly with increasing voltage so that the curve is roughly symmetrical
about the centre of the plateau.

At low anode voltages below the start of the plateau region the
pulse size depends on the type and energy of the primary ionization,
only the largest amplitude pulses being counted. With increasing
voltage all pulses become bigger and a larger fraction is counted.

At the beginning of the plateau all pulses are of the same size and
are counted. At the high end of the plateau, secondary discharges r L
appreciably increase the counting rate, at still higher voltages a
continuous discharge is produced which can drastically reduce the life
of the tube.

ABSORPTION OF RADIATION :

Radioactivity can be defined as the emission of radiation due to

the spontaneous disintegration of atoms. The radiation emitted by
radioactive materials is classified into three types:

1. Alpha particle radiation - an alpha particle is the nucleus of a

helium atom. rl~..
~' " "" \ ~
1\ •
11
J
tt '- 0~
' -1 t ' {

2. Beta particle radiation - a beta particle is a high spee~

electron. - w;~ \~r,~ \I ( rJ;, 1 1v. ~~ ~>(p)
3. Gamma radiation - gamma rays are electromagnetic rays of very short
wave-length (~ 0.1 nm).
~ ::- .b.
:::./ ~ >'? \
&~
,--
p L j. hi'V\
~ /V
10
!. "'- J " "' :::') 10 rm '/;, 'i)
p "' IJ
3.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 12

All three types of radiatio matter. In doing so the

radiation collides with an - ionize the atoms of which the matter is
composed. Each collision ome los~~nergy. ~ ~ ~-~~
If a radioactive source is shielded by non-radioactive material,
the absorption (for a typical source), would vary as shown in
Figure 12.2.

lntens1ty
---
e'f l ·n

of
Rad1at1on

Amount of Shielding

Figure 12.2: Absorption of Radiation

If I! is the intensity of a beam of radiation as it enters a slab

of material of thickness t (Figure 12.3), and I 2 is the i ~te~ ity of the
emerging beam, then an amount I 1 - I 2 has been absorbed by the material.
The relative value of these two intensities is dependent upon both the ~
thickness and kind of material of the absorbing slab. It can be shown \
that '" J J)
-~t n 1
12 • I 1 e ' "I.:.._[}; 't•vn ~, '"' ! \ (1)

where e • 2.718, the base of natural logarithms, and is the linear

~ _ ient of absor tion of the material. The linear absorption
coefficient may be defined as the fraction of €_he beam absorbed per unit {J,,,:c
-:I,-Iz.
~ )
4.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 12

thickness of material. A decreasing relation such as equation (1) is

often called an exponential decay.

If one takes the natural --~) <t.> )

--~)--
logarithm (symbol 1n) of both sides
)
of equation (1) the result is )
,.. ?•• ").., )
'.I(' 11"' 11-~) I
,;.-vr tf~ ).t
--~) ~().'0
~~ )
or rearranging, )
.....,..._
1ni 1 - 1§ = ~~ (2) FIg. 12 . 3
-:I,-11.. .'o
' . ~~
.Q~~'( ~
With a constant incident intensity 1 1 and a constant ~' equation
(2) is a linear relation between 1 2 and t. The graph should be a
straight line with a negative slope. Th~ intensities of 1 1 and 1 2 of
the incident and emerging beams, respectively, are most conveniently
measured with a Geiger-Mueller counter.

Since radioactive disintegration is random, any two successive

count rates will not be the same. However, a number of count rates will
be distributed statistically about a mean value. The uncertainty in a
count (n) is approximately

and the count rate is n + 10 where t is the timing

t
interval.

APPARATUS:

Nuclear Enterprises ST7 scaler and timer, G-M tube mounted on a

stand, Co 60 source, lead absorbers. ~

PROCEDURE:
. ~ t<-W~;\t
vH'NJ 'l~~'1NOTE: The thin end windo~ the Geiger tube is very fragile; do not
~v~r~~ ~ touch it or jaY it. The ~ source should always be stored in the lead
S ·1o!) "pot" except when measurements are being taken.
Do not ~xceed 750 volts on the geiger tube as this will drastically
reduce the life of the tube. Be sure the "H.V. ADJUST" control is set
at minimum before turning on/off the power supply.

The source should be placed about 10 centimeters from the end of

<)H. Ci the tube.
~,~o·l'
s.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 12
)
Set the "PROBE CONTROL" switch to G.M.; "PRESET COUNT" to 5x10 5 ;
"THRESHOLD" to 50 mV (i.e. 25 divisions. One complete turn of the dial
equals 100 divisions); "INT/DIFF" to INT; "WINDOW" to max. (i.e. 10
complete turns); "DISPLAY" to counts; and the "H.V. ADJUST" to minimum.
The "PRESET TIME" contro . etting the maximum time of measurement (h)
(in seconds). The STOP/OFF/RESET' control is for (i) stopping the
scaler/timer before he maximu. m time of measurement h. as been achieved, (
JSC d
~

j f(/f.-~
1·
r
--
or (ii) re-setting the scaler/timer rior to a new measurement. It
0 0
S10rt

' should be left in the centre "off" position ~urin data ac uisi n.
Appendix I gives a more detai fea-a escription of these controls and their
functions .

PLATEAU DETERMINATION
''

)C)O '/ ~') )l S A"'-1.~ +

Increase the high voltage until the scaler just begins to count ( 0 \j 'j_
(near 350 volts). Remember one complete turn o the H.V. ADJUST control ~~ ::: 1.. J:!j
(100 divisions) will increase the high voltage by 200 volts. Determine UO D
the count rate for several voltage up to 750 volts. Do not exceed this
-· voltage. Plot the plateau curve, (count rate as a function of voltage).
Do not use an extremely expanded scale on your graph, but indicate the
complete range starting from zero. Determine the percentage rise in K ' '
t I
counts over a 100 vo t interva near the center of the plateau. This is •
the working voltage to be used (approximately 100 volts above the ~ J-L ';t-
~
I'V,.~b ilc. \-:-:----
• -' V<l~
threshold). '4~'1. IJo IJ 17 r (

BACKGROUND DETERMINATION

Remove all radioactive sources from the vicinity of the G-M tube.
Take a 10 minute count, and determine the counts per minute. This
background count due to cosmic radiation must be subtracted from the
sample count in order to obtain the true sample count rate. The
background count can vary during the day. In view of the count rates
you have found, is this background count significant?

ABSORPTION OF RADIATION

Replace the source in the source holder beneath the G-M tube.
Measure the count rate with absorber thickness' from zero to about 7 l piN{,
centimeters of lead, co! re:Jing each count rate for background. ~ ~ J_<iPIJ.

Without disturbing the positions of the G-M tube or the source,

measure the count rate with the aluminum and cardboard absorbers for
several thicknesses. {>. -L L~

Plot two graphs (for the lead absorber):

..-.-
i(~ 1 ~jVI()+ 4 I v~.-fJ\r-. I /'A• .\ '
1'1{' i 1l f'{ ~ ' ~
R
1. count rate vs absorber th1cKness and draw a smootn curve through a
series of points in such a way as to represent an average of the
plotted data;
2. count rate vs absorber thickness on semi-log graph paper and draw a
straight line throug the series of points representing the best
average.
6.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 12

CALCULATIONS:

Equation (2) is given as ln I 1 - ln I 2 = ~t and if we assume half

of the radiation is absorbed (I 2 = 1/2 I 1), then we have ln2 = ~t and the
equation simplifies to 0.693 = ~T 112 where T112 is the half thickness (the
thickness to reduce the intensity to half). Determine the half thickness
from your first curve, and use the simplified form of equation (2) to
calculate ~' the linear absorption coefficient. ;A~ ~
tl/1.. d-- ~ G.'l-
Compute the slope of your second graph remembering the rules for
0
taking the slope from sem,i-log paper.
!J,..,. >-,- .
'V\ 1-l-:
.M t
}A
Using this slope and equat~on (2) compute the value of ~' the
t
~ -:!_\-- 1.-~_ ~

linear coefficient of absorption. How does this value compare with the
value obtained from the first graph? !All c.. - AC7i I, l 0 11'%,
All C1 I
Comment on the various absorber's ability in stopping the
radiation.

QUESTIONS
~<.. l vl L_<.. \
Some Geiger-Mueller tubes are built with exceedingly thin walls.
What type of radiation could be measured with this type of tube and
not measured with a thicker walled tube? \j.
\ \I \ .- ' " )'f' -.. f. ' -- i
Do you find that the same thickness of absorbing material is
required to reduce the intensity by the sape count 1
rate each time?
Justify your answer from your data. .{U'(' ill A- "1. -:o ( r 1 T

What happens to a gamma photon when it~":-;-

\ ... \ r. "' t
P(t/
r · l
is a sorbed? fV-+
it&. f/\l )'• v. r
r~ , '· t
7.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 12

APPENDIX I:

Controls and Connections of the ST7 Scaler/Timer

Panel Marking Control Function

H.V. ADJUST 10 turn This determines the H.v. output

in the range 0- 2 kV.

TEST 1 4 position switch H.V. off. Test pulses input.

H.V. OFF H.v. off. Input as s.c.

s.c. H.v. on. s.c. input.

G.M. H.V. on. G.M. input.

PROBE S.H.v. Socket Carries H.V. to s.c. or G.M.

detectors and inputs their
signals to the amplifier.

THRESHOLD 10 Turn pot. Sets the threshold of the

discriminator from 50 mV to
2.55 v•.

WINDOW 10 Turn pot. Sets the second discriminator

' \ ' ..., from 25 mV to 2.525 V above the
Threshold.

INT/DIFF 2 position switch Selects Integral/Differential

mode of counting •
• PRESET COUNT 6 position switch Selects the preset count limit
from 100 to 500,000 counts.
Preset at start of measurement.

PRESET TIME 9 position switch Selects the preset time limit

II.
from 10 to 60,000 sec. Preset
at the start of measurement.

DISPLAY 5 position switch Selects the display as follows:

COUNTS The current number of counts.

TIME The elapsed time from start.

8.
PHYSICS 215 Experiment 12

Panel Marking Control Function

DISPLAY (continued)

RATE Displays the running average for

the first cycle and thereafter
over the last complete cycle.

TREND The counts over the last sec.

TEST 2 Preset time then test sequence.

START Biased three Starts a single cycle of

SINGLE CYCLE position switch measurement.
OFF centre off
START Starts a continuous cycle of
MULTI CYCLE measurement.

STOP Biased three Stops the scaler/timer.

position switch
OFF centre off.

RESET Resets all registers and latches

prior to start.

SUPPLY Two position Mains ON/OFF.

switch.

FUSE 63 mA 4x20 mm anti-surge fuse (for

110 V use 125 mA anti-surge
fuse).