PHYS 1008

ELEMENTARY UNIVERSITY PHYSICS II

Instructor: Dr. Wafia Bensalem

Textbook & Reference: Physics, Giambattista, Richardson, Richardson,

McGraw Hill, 2016.
CHAPTER 1
Electric Forces and Fields
Chapter Outline
1. ELECTRIC CHARGE

2. ELECTRIC CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

3. COULOMB’S LAW

4. THE ELECTRIC FIELD

5. MOTION OF A POINT CHARGE IN A UNIFORM

ELECTRIC FIELD

6. GAUSS’S LAW FOR ELECTRIC FIELDS

1. ELECTRIC CHARGE

A piece of amber rubbed with a piece of fabric

Attracts small objects, such as bits of string or hair.

We say that the amber is electrically charged by rubbing.

Some electric charge is transferred between the amber and the cloth.

Our word electric comes from the Greek word for amber (elektron).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MBRTR2dlwvA
➢ Experiments reveal that electric forces can be either
attractive or repulsive.

➢ There are two types of electric charge, called positive and

negative (Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790))

➢ Like charges repel one another; unlike charges attract

one another.

➢ The net charge of a system is the algebraic sum of the

charges of the constituent particles in the system.

➢ An object that is electrically neutral has equal amounts

of positive and negative charge and thus a net charge of
zero.
Conservation of Charge

The net charge of an isolated system never changes.

• Charge is neither created nor disappeared.

• Usually, negative charge (electron) is transferred
from one object to the other.
QUIZ 1

If you rub an inflated balloon against your hair, the two materials
attract each other. Is the amount of charge present in the balloon
and your hair after rubbing

A. less than,
B. the same as, or
C. more than

the amount of charge present before rubbing?

Elementary Charge
* In SI, electrical charge is measured in coulomb ( C).

* The magnitude of charge on the proton and electron is

the same.

* That amount of charge is called the elementary charge

(symbol e ).
The net charge of any object is an integral multiple of e
Example16.1

The magnitude of charge transferred when you walk across

a carpet, reach out to shake hands, and unintentionally give
a shock to a friend might be typically about 1 nC.
If the charge is transferred by electrons only, how many
electrons are transferred?
Strategy

Since the coulomb (C) is the SI unit of charge, the “n” must
be the prefix “nano-” ( = 10−9 ). We know the value of the
elementary charge (e) in coulombs.

Solution
Q: How many electrons are transferred by a normal
sized lightning bolt?

A: Average charge = 16 Coulombs.

Number of electrons = 1020 electrons.
= 100 million trillion electrons!
Polarization

An electrically neutral object may have regions of positive

and negative charge within it, separated from one another.
Such an object is polarized .

A polarized object can experience an electric force even

though its net charge is zero.
The net force on the paper is always attractive, regardless of
the sign of charge on the rod. In this case, we say that the
paper is polarized by induction
Some molecules are intrinsically polarized.
Application: Hydrogen Bonds in Water

The shared electrons are more attracted

by the oxygen molecules. So the average
charge is negative near oxygen and
positive near hydrogen
A consequence of polarization of
water:

A stream of water is deflected by a

charged insulator
The negatively charged oxygen of one molecule is attracted to the positively charged
hydrogen of another molecule.
Application: Hydrogen Bonds in DNA, RNA, and Proteins

Hydrogen bonds between base pairs (eg. adenine and thymine) hold the two stands together
in a DNA molecule and are largely responsible for the double-helix shape of DNA.
2. ELECTRIC CONDUCTORS AND
INSULATORS
Materials vary dramatically in how easy or difficult it is for
charge to move within them.

 Materials in which some charge can move easily are

called electric conductors.

 Materials in which charge does not move easily are

called electrical insulators .

 Intermediate between conductors and insulators are the

semiconductors .
Charging Insulators by Rubbing

Insulating objects rubbed against one another both

electrons and ions can be transferred from one object to the
other.
Charging a Conductor by Contact

A positively charged insulator touches a conductor.

Negative charges are attracted to the insulator.
The positive charge transferred to the conductor spreads out.
The process can be repeated to build up more and more charge on
the conductor.
Grounding a Conductor

How can a conductor be discharged

One way is to ground it.

Earth is a conductor and can be thought of as a limitless

reservoir of charge.

To ground a conductor to provide a conducting path

between it and the Earth (or to another charge reservoir).

A charged conductor that is grounded discharges

because the charge spreads out by moving off the conductor
and onto the Earth (symbol: ).
Charging a Conductor by Induction

A conductor is not necessarily discharged when it is

grounded if there are other charges nearby.

It is even possible to charge an initially neutral conductor

by grounding it.
Charging by induction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Ggo1wGugI0
QUIZ 2

Object A is attracted to object B. If object B is known to be

positively charged, what can we say about object A?
A. It is positively charged.
B. It is negatively charged.
C. It is electrically neutral.
D. Not enough information to answer.
Example16.2
An electroscope (a measuring instrument that detects
electric charge) is charged negatively and the gold foil
leaves hang apart.
What happens to the leaves as the following operations
are carried out in the order listed? Explain what you see
after each step.
(a) You touch the metal bulb at the top of the
electroscope with your hand.
(b) You bring a glass rod that has been rubbed with silk
near the bulb without touching it. [ Hint : A glass rod
rubbed with silk is positively charged.]
(c) The glass rod touches the metal bulb.
Solution

(a)
By touching the electroscope bulb with your hand, you
ground it. Charge is transferred between your hand and
the bulb until the bulb’s net charge is zero. Since the
electroscope is now discharged, the foil leaves hang
down.
Solution

(b)
When the positively charged rod is held near the bulb,
the electroscope becomes polarized by induction.
Negatively charged free electrons are drawn toward
the bulb, leaving the foil leaves with
a positive net charge.

The leaves hang apart due to the

mutual repulsion of the net positive
charges on them.
Solution

(c)
When the positively charged rod touches the bulb, some
negative charge is transferred from the bulb to the rod.
The electroscope now has a positive net charge.

The leaves hang farther apart, since they now have more
positive charge on them than before.
3. COULOMB’S LAW

➢ Coulomb’s law gives the electric force acting between

two point charges .

➢ A point charge is a point-like object with a nonzero

electric charge.

➢ Like gravity, the electric force is an inverse square law

force.
Magnitude of Electric Force

Magnitude of the electric force that each of two Charges, q1 and q2 ,

separated by a distance r, exerts on the other:

▪ r is the distance between the two charges.

▪ k is the Coulomb constant.
▪ In terms of ϵ0 , the permittivity of free space :
Direction of the Electric Force vector
QUIZ 3

Object (1) has a charge of +2C, and object (2) has a charge of
+6C. Which statement is true?

A. =

B. =-

C. =3
Problem-Solving Tips for Coulomb’s Law

1. Use consistent units; since we know k in standard SI

units (N⋅m2/C2), distances should be in meters and
charges in coulombs. When the charge is given in μC or
nC, be sure to change the units to coulombs:

1 μC = 10−6 C and 1 nC = 10−9 C.

2.

• When finding the electric force on a single charge due to

two or more other charges, find the force due to each of
the other charges separately.

• The net force is the vector sum of the forces acting on

that charge (due to each of the other charges).

• Often it helps to separate the forces into x- and y-

components, add the components separately, then find
the magnitude and direction of the net force from its x-
and y-components.
3. If several charges lie along the same line, do not worry
about an intermediate charge “shielding” the charge
located on one side from the charge on the other side.

The electric force is long-range just as is gravity; the

gravitational force on the Earth due to the Sun does
not stop when the Moon passes between the two.
Example 16.3
Suppose three point charges are arranged as shown in the
figure. A charge q1 = + 1.2 μC is located at the origin of
an (x, y) coordinate system; a second charge q2 = − 0.60 μC is
located at (1.20 m, 0.50 m) and the third charge q3 = + 0.20
μC is located at (1.20 m, 0).
What is the force on q2 due to the other two charges?
Strategy

• The force on q2 due to q1 and the force on q2 due to q3

are determined separately.

• After sketching a free-body diagram, we add the two

forces as vectors.

• Let the distance between charges 1 and 2 be r12 and the

distance between charges 2 and 3 be r23 .
Solution
Solution
Solution
4. THE ELECTRIC FIELD

If a point charge q is in the vicinity of other charges, it

experiences an electric force .

The electric field (symbol )

at any point is defined to be
the electric force per unit
charge at that point.

NB: is a vector quantity

Once we know the electric field at some point
it is easy to calculate the electric force on
any point charge q placed there:
Example 16.5
A small sphere of mass 5.10 g is
hanging vertically from an insulating
thread that is 12.0 cm long. By
charging some nearby flat metal
plates, the sphere is subjected to a
horizontal electric field of magnitude
7.20 × 105 N/C. As a result, the sphere
is displaced 6.00 cm horizontally in
the direction of the electric field.
(a) What is the angle that the thread makes with the
vertical?
(b) What is the tension in the thread?
(c) What is the charge on the sphere?
Slide 46
Strategy

• The electric force on the sphere is given by .

The figure shows that the sphere is pushed to the right
by the field; therefore, is to the right.

• Since and have the same direction, the charge on

the sphere is positive.

• After drawing an FBD showing all the forces acting on the

sphere, we set the net force on the sphere equal to zero
since it hangs in equilibrium.
Solution
(a)
Solution
(b)
Solution
(c)
Electric Field due to a Point Charge

What is the electric field [due to a single point charge Q] at a

position P, when P is at a distance r from Q

Let q be a positive test charge placed at P.

Coulomb’s law says that the force acting on the test charge
has a magnitude:

The electric field strength at P is then:

Electric field strength at P Source charge

Coulomb’s constant

Distance between P and the source charge

❖ Principle of Superposition
The electric field at any point is the vector sum of the field
vectors at that point caused by each charge separately.
QUIZ 4

True or false?

A charge of +3µC is at a point P where the electric field is directed to the

right and has a magnitude of 4 x 106 N/C.
If the charge is replaced with a -3µC charge, electric field at P will be
directed to the left.
Electric Field Lines

Electric field lines are a set of continuous lines that

represent the electric field vector in space.

• The direction of the electric

field vector at any point is
tangent to the field line
passing through that point
and in the direction indicated
by arrows on the field line.
• The electric field is strong where
field lines are close together and
weak where they are far apart.
Rules for Sketching Field Lines
• Electric field lines can start only on positive charges and
can end only on negative charges.
• The number of lines starting on a positive charge (or
ending on a negative charge) is proportional to the
magnitude of the charge.
(The total number of
lines you draw is
arbitrary; the more lines
you draw, the better
the representation of
the field.)
• Field lines never cross. The electric field at any point has
a unique direction; if field lines crossed, the field would
have two directions at the same point.

How to observe them?

Small pieces of thread on an oil surface align with the electric field.
Field Lines for a Point Charge
• The electric field due to a point charge is radial. It goes
away from a positive charge or toward a negative charge.
• The lines are close together near the point charge, where
the field is strong, and are more spread out farther from
the point charge, showing that the field strength
diminishes with distance.
QUIZ 5

If E1 is the magnitude of the electric field at the

point P due to Q1 and E2 is the magnitude of the Q2(-)
electric field at the point P due to Q2; the net P
electric field at the point P is:
a) E1 + E2
b) E12 + E 22
  X
c) E1i + E 2 j Q1(+)
 
d) E1 j − E 2 i
Electric Field due to a Dipole

A pair of point charges with equal and opposite charges that

are near one another is called a dipole (literally two poles ).

Sketching some field lines gives an approximate idea of the

electric field.
QUIZ 6
In the figure below, the relation between the magnitudes of the electric fields at points A, B, and
C ( EA, EB and EC ) is:

A) EC < EB < EA
B) EB < EA < EC
C) EA < EB < EC
D) EC < EA < EB
Example 16.6

Two point charges are located on the x -axis.

Charge q1 = +0.60 μC is located at x = 0; charge q2 = − 0.50 μC
is located at x = 0.40 m. Point P is located at x = 1.20 m.

What is the magnitude and direction of the electric field at

point P due to the two charges?
Strategy

• We can determine the field at P due to q1 and the field at

P due to q2 separately using Coulomb’s law and the
definition of the electric field.

• In each case, the electric field points in the direction of

the electric force on a positive test charge at point P .

• The sum of these two fields is the electric field at P .

Solution
Solution
Solution
Example 16.8
A thin metallic spherical shell of radius R carries a total
charge Q , which is positive. The charge is spread out evenly
over the shell’s outside surface. Sketch the electric field
lines in two different views of the situation:

(a) the spherical shell is tiny, and you are looking at it from
distant points;
(b) you are looking at the field inside the shell’s cavity.

In (a), also sketch field vectors at two different points

outside the shell.
Strategy

• Since the charge on the shell is positive, field lines begin

on the shell.

• A sphere is a highly symmetrical shape: standing at the

center, it looks the same in any chosen direction. This
symmetry helps in sketching the field lines.
Solution
(a)
Solution
(b)

The lines must start on the shell and point radially toward
the center. They would cross. So there can be NO field
lines (No electric field) inside the shell.
Application of Electric Fields: Electrolocation

The Gymnarchus niloticus (Nile River)

navigates With great precision
although it is nearly blind.

The Gymnarchus
generates an electric
field resembling that of
a dipole. Slight changes
in the Electric field are
interpreted as the
presence of nearby
objects
Application : Lightning Rods

The lightning-rod is an excellent

conductor. The current flows to ground
without causing any heat damage in the
building.
5. MOTION OF A POINT CHARGE IN
A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD
A uniform electric field has the same magnitude and
direction at every point.

➢ Between oppositely charged metal plates the field is uniform.

The field has a magnitude of (Proof

in chapter 2):

• Q is the magnitude of charges on the plates.

• A is the area of each plate.
A point charge q inside this uniform electric field
experiments an electric force:

And an acceleration:

Consider each charge separately

The direction of the acceleration is either parallel to

(for a positive charge) or antiparallel to (for a negative charge).
QUIZ 7

A negative charge is placed in a region of space where the

electric field is directed vertically upward. What is the direction of the
electric force experienced by this charge?
A. To the right
B. To the left
C. Upward
D. Downward
Example 16.9
A cathode ray tube (CRT) is used to accelerate electrons in some
televisions, computer monitors, oscilloscopes, and x-ray tubes.
Electrons from a heated filament pass through a hole in the
cathode; they are then accelerated by an electric field between
the cathode and the anode (next slide).
Suppose an electron passes through the hole in the cathode
at a velocity of 1.0 × 105 m/s toward the anode. The electric
field is uniform between the anode and cathode and has a
magnitude of 1.0 × 104 N/C.

What is the acceleration of the electron?

Strategy
Solution
Example 16.10
An electron is projected horizontally into the uniform electric
field directed vertically downward between two parallel
plates. The plates are 2.00 cm apart and are of length 4.00
cm. The initial speed of the electron is vi = 8.00 × 106 m/s. As
it enters the region between the plates, the electron is
midway between the two plates; as it leaves, the electron
just misses the upper
plate.

What is the magnitude of

the electric field?
Strategy

➢ As the acceleration is vertical, the horizontal

component of velocity is constant: vx = vi
Solution

Since the field has no x-component, its magnitude is

4.55 × 103 N/C.
6. GAUSS’S LAW FOR ELECTRIC FIELDS

Gauss’s law, named after German mathematician Karl

Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855), is a powerful statement of
properties of the electric field. It relates the electric field on
a closed surface— any closed surface—to the net charge
inside the surface.

A closed surface encloses a volume of space, so that

there is an inside and an outside.

Gauss’s law says: I can tell you how much charge you have
inside that “box” without looking inside; I’ll just look at the
field lines that enter or exit the box.
• No net charge inside a box same number of field
lines are going into and out of that box.

• ∃ a net positive charge inside ∃ field lines starting

on the positive charge.
more field lines come out than go in.

• ∃ net negative charge inside ∃ field lines ending on

the negative charge.
more field lines go in than come out.
Number of lines crossing A:
∝ 𝐸⊥ (normal component of 𝐸 )
∝ A (area)
Definition of Flux of the electric field through the surface A:

For a closed surface, flux is defined to be positive if more

field lines leave the surface than enter, or negative if
more lines enter than leave. Flux is then positive if the net
enclosed charge is positive and it is negative if the net
enclosed charge is negative.
Inside a closed surface:

Net number of field lines ∝ The net charge (q) enclosed by

the surface

Gauss’s law takes the form:

The constant of proportionality is 4k = 1/ϵ0 (Example 16.12).

Gauss’s Law:

• is the Flux of the electric field across a closed surface A.

• q is the net charge inside the surface A.

• k is Coulomb’s constant.

• is the permittivity of free space.

Special cases (with uniform electric field):

0 < 𝜃 < 90o 𝜃 = 0o 𝜃 = 90o

QUIZ 8

True or false?

Consider a sphere and suppose that an electric charge of +5µC

is just outside the sphere, 1.01 m from its center.
The total flux through the sphere is then zero.
QUIZ 9

The total electric flux through a closed cylindrical (length = 1.2 m,

diameter = 0.20 m) surface is equal to –5.0 N⋅m2/C.
Determine the net charge within the cylinder.
A. –62 pC
B. –53 pC
C. –44 pC
D. –71 pC
E. –16 pC
Example 16.12

What is the flux through a sphere of radius r = 5.0 cm that

has a point charge q = −2.0 μC at its center?

Strategy

In this case, there are two ways to find the flux. The electric
field is known from Coulomb’s law and can be used to find
the flux, or we can use Gauss’s law.
Solution
Using Gauss’s Law to Find the Electric Field

➢ Gauss’s law is more often used to find the electric field

due to a distribution of charges.

➢ Gauss’s law can be used to calculate the electric field in

cases where there is enough symmetry.

➢ One will have to choose an appropriate imaginary

surface around the charge: Gaussian surface.
Example 16.13

A thin spherical shell of radius a has a total

charge q distributed uniformly over its
surface.
Find the electric field at points
(a) outside and
(b) inside the shell.
Strategy

(a) Because the charge distribution is spherically symmetric, we select a

spherical Gaussian surface of radius r > a, concentric with the shell.

(b) For the calculation of the field inside the shell we choose as Gaussian
surface a spherical surface of radius r < a concentric with the shell.
Solution
(a) Because at any point, the electric field is perpendicular to the Gaussian
surface, then:

Gauss’s law:
Gaussian surface
Thus: , and then:

This is the electric field due to a point charge that we

developed from Coulomb’s law!
NB: Same result for a full sphere.
Solution

(b) Because the net charge inside the

surface is zero, ΦE = 0 , from Gauss’s law.

And because ΦE = E A by definition then:

E = 0 inside the shell

Gaussian surface