ENGINEERING

THERMODYNAMICS

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC
CONCEPTS

BY HANAN E.
Learning Objectives

1. Identify the unique vocabulary associated with thermodynamics

through the precise definition of basic concepts to form a sound
foundation for the development of the principles of
thermodynamics.
2. Review the metric SI unit system that will be used throughout the
text.
3. Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such as system,
state, state postulate, equilibrium, process, and cycle.
4. Review concepts of temperature, temperature scales, pressure, and
absolute and gage pressure.
5. Discuss problem-solving techniques that can be used to solve
engineering problems.
1-1 Thermodynamics and Energy
What is Thermodynamics?
• The science of energy(the ability to cause changes)
• thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and
dynamis (power).
• In its broader sense, thermodynamics includes all aspects of
energy and energy transformations
• e.g., power generation, refrigeration, relationships among the
properties of matter

Conservation of Energy
• One of the most fundamental laws of nature
• Energy can change form, but the total amount of energy must
remain the same
i.e., energy cannot be created or destroyed
• The change in the energy content of a system is equal to the
difference between the energy input and the energy output, and
the energy balance is expressed as E = Ein - Eout.
1-1 Thermodynamics and Energy
First law of thermodynamics
• An expression of the conservation of energy principle(energy does
not created nor destroyed)
• Asserts that energy is a thermodynamic property
Second law of thermodynamics
• Asserts that energy has quality and quantity as well as the degree of
degradation of energy during a process
• Processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality of energy
• It asserts that a natural process runs only in one sense, and is not
reversible.
• Eg. heat always flows from hotter to colder bodies, and never the
reverse, unless external work is performed on the system.
Validity of laws
• The laws of thermodynamics cannot be proved in a mathematical
sense
• Their validity rests on our experience (experimental observations)
1-1 Thermodynamics and Energy
Classical Thermodynamics
• The macroscopic approach
• Does not require knowledge of the
behavior of individual particles
• Provides a direct and easy way to the
solution of engineering problems

Statistical Thermodynamics
• The microscopic or molecular approach
• Based on the average behavior of large
groups of individual particles
• The goal is the understanding and
prediction of macroscopic phenomena and
the calculation of macroscopic properties
from the properties of individual
molecules
1-1 Thermodynamics and Energy
Application Areas of Thermodynamics – Daily Life
1-1 Thermodynamics and Energy
Application Areas of Thermodynamics – Engineering Applications
1-2 Dimensions and Units
•Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions
•The arbitrary magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units
• E.g., Dimensions: mass, length, time
Units: kilogram, meter, second

Primary (fundamental) Units

• Basic Units
• E.g., mass, length, time, temperature,electric current, amount of
light, amount of matter

Secondary (derived) Units

• Expressed in terms of primary dimensions
• E.g., velocity, energy, volume

•Two common sets of units: English [United States Customary System

(USCS)] and SI(International System)
1-2 Dimensions and Units
Difference between weight and mass
• Mass is a fundamental quantity
• Weight is the gravitational force
applied to a body

W = mg

Dimensional Homogeneity
• Basic idea – you can’t add apples and oranges
• Every term in an expression must have the same units
• Valuable tool for spotting errors

• What is wrong with this expression?

E = 25 kJ + 7 kJ/kg
1-2 Dimensions and Units
Unit Conversion Ratios
• All secondary units can be formed by combinations of
primary units
• For example, consider a Newton
m
N = kg 2
s
• These relationships can be expressed more conveniently as unity
conversion ratios
N
=1
kg  m s 2

• Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are unitless

• Such ratios can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to
properly convert units
1-3 Closed and Open Systems
Thermodynamic System
• A quantity of matter or
region in space chosen for
study

Surroundings
• Mass or region outside the
system

Boundary
• The real or imaginary surface
that separates the system
from the surroundings
1-3 Closed and Open Systems
Closed System (control mass)
• Consists of a fixed amount of
mass
• Mass can NOT cross the
boundary
• Energy can cross the
boundary(heat or work)
• Volume does not have to be fixed
• E.g. Cup of coffee with a lid on
top

Isolated System mass = constant

• Special case of a closed system Volume = constant
• No energy is allowed to cross the Energy = constant
boundary
• E.g. Thermos
1-3 Closed and Open Systems
Open System (control volume)
• Any arbitrary region in space
• Usually involves a device
through which mass flows
• Mass and energy
(heat and work) can cross the
boundary E.g. human
• Control volumes can change
in actual volume with time

Control Surface
• The boundaries of a control
volume
a) can be real or imaginary
b) can be fixed in space or
have a moving boundary
1-3 Closed and Open Systems
1-4 Properties of a System
Property
• Any characteristic of a system
• E.g., temperature, pressure, volume

Intensive Property
• Independent of the size of the system
• E.g., temperature, pressure, density
Extensive Property
• Value depends on the size (or extent)
of the system
• E.g., mass, volume, total energy

Specific Properties
• Extensive properties per unit mass
• E.g., specific volume, specific energy
v =V m e=E m
1-5 Density and Specific Gravity
Density
m
• Mass per unit volume r=
V

Specific Volume
V 1
• Reciprocal of the density v= =
• Volume per unit mass m r

Specific Gravity (or Relative Density)

• The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some
standard substance at a specified temperature
• Usually the standard is water at 4 oC, for which
rH2O = 1000 kg/m3
r
SG =
rH O
2
1-6 State and Equilibrium
State
• Completely describes the condition of a system
• All properties of a system have fixed values

Equilibrium
• State of balance( no change in time and in space)
• No unbalanced driving potentials (driving forces)

Types of Equilibrium
• Thermal: uniform temperature throughout the system
• Mechanical: uniform pressure or no tendency for the pressure at
any point to change with time as along as the system is isolated
from its surroundings
• Phase: the mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium and stays
there
• Chemical: no tendency for changes in chemical composition
1-6 State and Equilibrium
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
• Equilibrium with respect to all possible changes of state

** State Postulate **
• The state of a simple compressible system is completely described
by two independent intensive properties

Simple Compressible System

• System in the absence of electrical, magnetic, gravitational, motion,
and surface tension effects. These effects are due to external force
fields and are negligible for most engineering problems.

Independent Properties
• One property can be varied while the other is held constant (T and
specific volume, are always independent properties, and together
they can fix the state of a simple compressible system
1-7 Processes and Cycles

Process
• Any change that a system
undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another

Path
• The series of states a system
passes through during a
process

** To completely describe a process, one must know the

initial and final states as well as the path the process follows
and the interactions with the surroundings.
1-7 Processes and Cycles
Cycle
• A process, or series of
processes, that begin and end
at the same state

Iso Processes
• Certain properties can remain
constant during a process
• We use the prefix iso to
describe such processes
• Examples:
isothermal const. T
isobaric const. P
isochoric(isometric)
const. v
1-7 Processes and Cycles
Quasi-static (quasi-equilibrium) process
• A process that proceeds in a manner that the system remains
infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times
• slow process that allows the system to adjust itself internally so
that properties in one part of the system do not change any
faster than those at other parts.
1-7 Processes and Cycles
The Steady-Flow Process
• Steady: no change with time
• Uniform: no change with location

• A steady-flow process is one in which a fluid flows through a

control volume steadily
• The fluid properties can change with location within the
control volume, but at any fixed point they remain the same
during the entire process
1-8 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Observation
• When a body is brought into
contact with another body that is at
a different temperature, heat is
transferred from the body at higher
temperature to the one at lower
temperature until both bodies attain
the same temperature (thermal
equilibrium)
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are
also in equilibrium with each other
• Cannot be concluded from the other laws of thermodynamics
• Serves as a validity of temperature measurement
• Restated: Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading, even if they are not in contact
1-8 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic (Absolute) Temperature Scale
• A scale that is independent of the properties of a system

Temperature Scales
• oC – Celsius, based on freezing and boiling points of water
• K – Kelvin, absolute scale

T ( K ) = T ( o C ) + 273.15 T ( K ) = T ( o C )

Anders Celsius Lord Kelvin

1-9 Pressure
Pressure
• The force exerted by a fluid per unit area

Absolute Pressure
• Actual pressure at a given pressure
• Measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure)

Gage Pressure
• Difference between the absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure
Pgage = Pabs − Patm

Vacuum Pressures
• Pressures below atmospheric pressure
Pvac = Patm − Pabs
1-9 Pressure
1-9 Pressure
Variation of Pressure with Depth
• Via a simple force balance
P = P2 − P1 = rgz
• Assumes the fluid is incompressible,
i.e., r  f ( z )
• In differential form
dP
= − rg
dz
• If a fluid is compressible, i.e., r = f ( z )
2
P = P2 − P1 =  rg dz
1

• In general, the variation of pressure with depth is

significant for liquids and negligible for gases
1-10 The Manometer
Basic Manometer
• to measure small and moderate
pressure differences.
• mainly consists of a glass or plastic U-
tube containing one or more fluids
such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.
• Since the gravitational effects of gases
are negligible, the pressure anywhere
in the tank and at position 1 has the
same value.

• By considering the variation of P2 = Patm + rgh

pressure with depth, we get
• More complicated manometers arise
from placing multiple immiscible
fluids in series
1-10 The Manometer

Example 1-6
A manometer is used to measure the pressure in a tank. The fluid
used has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column
height is 55 cm. If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa,
determine the absolute pressure within the tank.
1-10 The Manometer
1-11 Barometer and the Atmospheric Pressure
Basic Barometer
• Atmospheric pressure is measured
by a device called a barometer

• We make the following

assumptions:
• (vapor pressure of Hg)
PB = Patm
PC = 0
Which gives,
Patm = rgh
1-11 Barometer and the Atmospheric Pressure
Example 1-8
Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the barometric
reading is 740 mm Hg and the gravitational acceleration is 9.81 m/s2.
Assume the temperature of mercury is 10 oC, at which its density is
13,570 kg/m3.
1-12 Problem Solving

1. Problem statement
2. Schematic
3. Assumptions and
Approximations
4. Physical laws
5. Unknown Properties
6. Calculations
7. Reasoning, verification
and discussion
Problem 1

The barometer of a mountain hiker reads 930 mbars at the beginning

of a hiking trip and 780 mbars at the end. Neglecting the effect of
altitude on local gravitational acceleration, determine the vertical
distance climbed. Assume an average air density of 1.20 kg/m3.
End of class