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A N I NTRODUCTION TO D UCT ACOUSTICS

AND ITS A PPLICATIONS .

S.W. R IENSTRA
E INDHOVEN U NIVERSITY OF T ECHNOLOGY

F LOWA IR S C OURSE ,
25 O CTOBER 2012
L E M ANS

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I will consider here as Duct Acoustics

what falls under this heading in the annual AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conferences

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Summary of equations for fluid motion, mean flow and small perturbations.
Acoustic energy with mean flow
Shear flow, uniform mean flow, no mean flow, plane waves
Lorentz/Prandtl-Glauert transformation
Boundary conditions: hard walls, soft walls without and with mean flow
Duct of arbitrary cross section, 1D waves and junctions, modes, hard/soft walls, cut-on cut-off
Group and phase velocity
Circular duct, hard/soft-walled, without/with flow
Source expansion, modal power
Behaviour of soft-wall modes, surface waves
Propeller in duct, Tyler-Sofrin rule
Greens function
Open end radiation, reflection coefficient
Slowly varying ducts, WKB and Webster

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Summary of equations for fluid motion

Acoustics is a branch of fluid mechanics!

mass:
t
+ v = v

momentum:
t
+ v v = p +

energy :
t
+ v e = q p v + :v


t
+ v h = dtd p q + :v

T
t
+ v s = q + :v.

where
p
T ds = de + pd 1 = dh 1 d p, h =e+ , p = RT,

dp d CP
de = C V dT, dh = C P dT, ds = C V CP , c2 = RT, =
p CV
for a perfect gas (i.e. C V , C P constant). In acoustics, no heat conduction, no viscosity:

d dv ds
dt
= v,
dt
= p,
dt
=0

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Mean flow and small perturbations:

v = V 0 + v0, p = p0 + p 0 , = 0 + 0 , s = s0 + s 0
linearise,

0 V 0 = 0,
0 V 0 V 0 = p0 ,
V 0 s0 = 0,
d p0 d0 p0
ds0 = C V CP , c02 =
p0 0 0
and


t
+ V 0 0 + 0 V 0 + v 0 0 = 0

0
t + V0
v 0 + 0 v 0 V 0 + 0 V 0 V 0 = p0
0

t + V
0
s + v 0 s0 = 0
0 = 0)
with (assuming sinit
0 p0 0
s = CV CP .
p0 0
Soundspeed perturbations c0 usually serve no purpose in linear acoustics.

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Acoustic energy with mean flow

Myers definition of energy is both consistent with the general conservation law of fluid energy and with
the order of approximation, i.e. linearisation. Note: no energy conservation.

t
E + I = D

p02 0 T0 s 02
E=
20 c02
1 02 0

+ 2 0 v + V 0 v + 0
2C p
,

p 0
0 0
I = 0 v + V 0
0
0
+ V 0 v + 0 V 0 T 0 s 0 ,


D = 0 V 0 0 v 0 0 v 0 0 V 0 + s 0 0 v 0 + 0 V 0 T0 s 0 0 V 0 T 0 .
(viscous stress and heat conduction are neglected for simplicity).
1
No mean flow and a uniform medium: E = p02 + 12 0 v 02 , I = pv 0 , D = 0.
20 c02

Acoustic energy conserved (D = 0) in homentropic (s 0 = 0) & irrotational (0 = 0 = 0) flow.

In vortical flow, the interaction with the mean flow source or sink.

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Linearise around parallel shear flow:

PARALLEL SHEAR FLOW SATISFIES MEAN FLOW EQUATIONS

v = U0 (r)ex + v 0 , p = p0 (r) + p0 ,
= 0 (r) + 0 , p0 = c0 (r)2 0 .

ACOUSTIC FIELD :


t
+ U0 x 0 + 0 v 0 = 0,
0
0
t
d 0

+ U0 x v + 0 dr U0 v er e x + p0 = 0,

For a time-harmonic field, i.e. eit ,

this maybe reduced to the Pridmore-Brown equation in p0 .

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Uniform mean flow:

V 0 = U0 e x , S, 0 , p0 are constant, so


t
+ U0 x 0 + 0 v 0 = 0
0
0 t + U0 x v = p0

0 2 0
t + U0 x ( p c0 ) = 0

Split up the perturbation velocity in a vortical part and an irrotational part

v 0 = 0 + 0 ,
with 0 = 0

Vortical part is decoupled from pressure, and we derive

the Convected Wave Equation for p0

2 0
c02 2 p0
t + U0 x p = 0.

(vorticity and entropy may be convected, we do not assume 0 = 0, p0 = c02 0 )

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No mean flow:

V 0 = 0, S, 0 , p0 are constant, so
0
t
+ 0 v 0 = 0, 0 t v 0 = p0 ,
t ( p
0
c02 0 ) = 0

combine to the standard wave equation

2
c02 2 p0 t 2
p0 = 0.

For time-harmonic perturbations p0 (x, t) = Re( p0 (x) e it )

c02 2 p0 + 2 p0 = 0,

Helmholtz equation or reduced wave equation.

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Plane wave solutions:

Plane waves travelling in direction n of the form (d Alembert)

p(x, t) = F(n x c0 t)

satisfy
2 p
2

p = (n n)F = F , 00 00
t 2
= c 2 00
0 F

and so satisfy
2 p
c02 2 p 2 = 0.
t
Typically important:
p(x, t) = F(x c0 t), p(x, t) = A e itik x
where

k= n
c0

Example: eitik cos xik sin y propagates in direction n = (cos , sin ).

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Lorentz/Prandtl-Glauert transformation:
It is useful to know that the convected wave equation

2 0
c02 2 p0
t + U0 x p = 0.

may be transformed to the ordinary wave equation by

M p
0
p (x, y, z, t) = e
p (X, y, z, T ), x = X, T = t + x, = 1 M 2
c0
From
2 0 1 2 2M 2 M2 2
2
p = 2 2
+ + 2 2
e
p
x X c0 XT 2
c0 T
2 0 2 M 2
p = + e
p
xt XT c0 T 2
2 0 2
2
p = e
p
t 2 T 2
we obtain
2 2 2 2
c02 + 2+ 2 e p e
p = 0.
X2 y z T 2

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Even though a modern high-bypass ratio turbofan engine is very complicated . . .

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the lined inlet and exhausts ducts are important applications of relatively simple duct acoustics.

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Impedance boundary conditions (no mean flow)

Frequency domain: (note: Z is in general essentially frequency dependent.)

p0 = Z ()(v0 n)

n Z () C (Note orientation n)

Hard wall: Z = and v 0 n = 0.

Time domain via inverse Fourier transform & convolution (where 1/Z = Y ):
Z Z
p0 (t) = z(t )v 0 ( ) d, v 0 (t) = y(t ) p0 ( ) d

Wall response is causal: z(t) = y(t) = 0 for t < 0, and so

Z () is analytic and non-zero for Im() < 0

Dissipated energy:

P = h I ni = h p0 v 0 ni = 1
2
Re(Z )|v0 n|2 .
Passive walls: Re(Z ) 0.

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Impedance Boundary Conditions with Mean Flow

If boundary layer any acoustic length scale: limit is taken of B.L. thickness 0.

For the mean flow the duct wall is solid

V0 n = 0

For the acoustic field the wall is soft:

At the wall with zero mean flow, V0

p0 = Z (v 0 n), Z C.

which is not to be used here, but: n

For a point near the wall but still (just) inside the mean flow (Ingard 1959, Myers 1980)
h i p0
0

i(v n) = i + V n (n V )
Z

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Instability problems associated with the Ingard-Myers condition

Ingard-Myers condition is OK in frequency domain, but ill-posed in time domain (generates absolute
instabilities):

Regularise by keeping boundary layer thickness slightly nonzero, for example (linear shear)
0 0
i + U
x
2
p 0 i 3 i + 3 U 1
x

(v n)
Z () = 2
.
0

i(v0 n) +
0 x 2
p 0 1 i
3 n

(v n)

Other regularisations (e.g. including real boundary layer mean flow profile and viscosity effects)
are more complicated but refine also the acoustic solution.

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Waves in ducts

Hard-walled ducts allow plane wave solutions (left-, right-running):

p p
p(x, y, z, t) = f (x c0 t) + g(x + c0 t), = =0
y z
We will see that this is the only propagating wave form for low frequencies.

A1 f (x c0 t)
g(x + c0 t) A2
h(x c0 t)

Coupling is approximately possible if diameters are small enough: assume pillbox A1 , A2 .
ZZZ

i0 v + p dx = 0 p() p() = i0 2 Av 0


ZZZ if Ai 0
c
[i + 0 v] dx = 0 A2 0 u() A1 0 u() = i2 A 0
0
 ( compact region)

More precise: by Matched Asymptotic Expansion solution.

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Duct modes
y

A
duct

x
z

Consider traveling wave solutions of the type

p(x, y, z, t) = f (x at, y, z), c02 ( f yy + f zz ) (a 2 c02 ) f 11 = 0

This is too general. Of more interest are time harmonic solutions

!
2
p(x, y, z, t) = eiti x f (y, z), f yy + f zz + 2 f =0
c02

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Duct modes 2D

In 2D this becomes
iti x 2 2

p(x, y, z, t) = e f (y), k f + f yy = 0, k=
c0
This is solvable as
p
iti xi ()y
p(x, y, t) = e , () = k2 2 : plane waves!

Hard wall boundary conditions:

iti x i y i y

p(x, y, t) = e Ae +B e
s
n2 2
p y (x, 0, t) i ( A B) = 0 sin( h) = 0 h = n n = k2 2

h

p y (x, h, t) i ( A ei h B ei h ) = 0

Discrete set of solutions: modes. Sufficient to build any solution.

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General 3D modal solution (no flow)

y

A
duct

x
z

2 2 2
x 2
+ 2 + 2 p + k 2 p = 0,
y z
with k = /c0 ,
Z ( p n) = i0 p at wall

with solution

X
p(x, y, z) = An n (y, z) ein x
n=0
Mode n is n-th eigensolution of Laplace eigenvalue problem on a duct cross section:
2 2 2
n + n = n n , (+ B.C.)
y2 z 2
where q
n2 = k 2 n2 , or n = k 2 n2 modal wave numbers

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Physical relevance of modal wave numbers

p
Hard walls: all n real n = k 2 n2 : real (cut-on) or imaginary (cut-off)

Note: if k 0, all modes are C

cut-off except 1 = 0! k

k

Soft walls: n and n complex

C
k

k

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Straight duct with uniform mean flow: modal solution

y

A
duct

A
x
z

2 2 2 2
c02
x 2
+ 2 + 2 p i + U0
y z x

p = 0, with iZ ( p n) = 0 (i + U0 x )2 p at wall.

Modal solution

X
p(x, y, z) = An n (y, z) ein x
n=0
Mode n is n-th eigensolution of Laplace problem on a duct cross section:
2 2 2
n + n = n n , (+ B.C. containing n )
y2 z 2
where
q p
kM 1
n2 = (k Mn ) 2
n2 , or n = 2 2 k2 2 n2 , = 1 M2

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Hard walls: all n real n real (cut-on) or (Doppler-shifted) complex (cut-off)

C
k

1M

k
1+M

Soft walls: n and n complex (but there is more . . . )

C
k
1M

k
1+M

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Modal Phase and Group Velocity

Modal phase velocity: t Re(n )x = constant, or v ph = .
Re(n )
d 1
n
Modal group velocity: vg =
d

Hard walls, cut-on modes (n is indep. of ):

q
2 2 n
v
ph = , vg = c0 , n = k 2 2 n2
k M n Mn k

Note:

Hard wall, cut-on: v + +

ph < vg < 0 < vg < v ph , or v + +
ph < v ph < vg < 0 < vg .

Without flow: v ph vg = c02 , vg < c0 < v ph . (Perturbations not acoustic if v ph < c0 )

With soft walls: vg depends on Z = Z ().

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Important special case: Circular duct r = a

2 2 1 1 2
= 2 + + 2 2 = 2
r r r r
By circular symmetry we write = F(r)G() and find modes explicitly given by:

n (y, z) = Jm (mr) eim , m Z.

(Note multiplicity 2: both m and m.)

Hard walls:
0
jm
Jm0 (m a) =0 m =
a
Soft walls without flow:

Z m Jm0 (m a) = i0 Jm (m a) m (Z )

Soft walls with flow:

iZ m Jm0 (m a) = ( U0 m )2 Jm (m a) m (Z )

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0.5

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Bessel function Jm (x) as function of order and real argument.

s
q 2 0 2
jm1 a
Note: 0
j01 = 0, 0
jm1 'm + 0.8m 1/3 m1 = k2 2
m1 = cut-on if > m.
c02 a2 c0

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Surface of constant modal phase

Surface of constant phase m + Re(m )x is a helix of pitch 2m/ Re(m )

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Source expansion, mode matching.

A complete solution is given by the following modal expansion:

X
X
p(x, r, ) = ( Am eim x +Bm e im x )Um (r) eim .
m= =1
n o1/2
1 2 2 2
Um (r) = Nm Jm (mr), Nm = 2 (a m /m )Jm (m a)2
Ra
In a hard-walled duct Um are orthogonal and normalised: 0 Um (r)Um (r)r dr = .

If p(0, t, ) = p0 (r, ) describes a source in a hard-walled duct, then (projection) for x > 0
Z 2 Z a
1
Am = p0 (r, )Um (r) e im r drd
2 0 0

and Bm = 0. The same for x < 0 with Am and Bm interchanged. Same: mode matching at junction.
Note that only a finite number of modes (cut-on modes) survive at large distances (1 mode if ka 1).

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Modal power in hard-walled duct

Time-averaged axial intensity

h I ex i = 14 ( pu + p u)
Transmitted acoustic power

X X

P = Re(m )(|Am | |Bm | ) + 2 Im(m ) Im( A Bm ).
2 2
m
0 m=
=1

The summation over Re(m ) contains only a finite number of non-zero terms: the cut-on modes.

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Behaviour of m as a function of Z .

Consider Z along paths parallel to imaginary axis, i.e. Re(Z ) = constant:

6 Z C
real axis
imaginary
axis Re(Z ) =constant

Complex impedance plane.

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From the asymptotic behaviour

1 1
iz 2 mi 4 i
e
Jm (z) ' , z , Im z < 0
2 z
we have typically two classes of behaviour:

Im() = O(1): Jm (r) oscillatory, O(1): acoustic wave.

Im() O(1): Jm (r) exponentially restricted to r = a: surface wave.

Im() small corresponds to near hard-wall modes.

For high it is possible to indicate very precisely when surface waves occur.

r=a

r=0

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Trajectories of all for Re(Z ) fixed, < Im(Z ) < :

a
m = 1, = 5, M = 0
c0

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5 5

4 4
Z=1.5+ i Z=1+ i
3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

5 5

4 4
Z=0.7+ i Z=0.4+ i
3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

5 5

4 4
Z=0.2+ i Z=0.1+ i
3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

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To make the pictures clean, we (Lorentz-)scale a bit:

k(m M) q m
2 ,
m = , m = 1 m m =
2 k

Trajectories of all for Re(Z ) fixed, < Im(Z ) < :

a
m = 1, = 5, M = 0.5
c0

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5 5

4 4
Z=3+ i Z=2+ i
3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

5 5

4 4
Z=1+ i Z=0.5+ i
3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

5 5

4 4
Z=0.2+ i Z=0.1+ i
3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

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Propeller in duct
B blades, B-periodic with period 1 = 2/B :
Any periodic function can be written as a Fourier series. Here

X
X

im2 1
p(0, r, , 0) = qm (r) e = qm (r) eim B
m= m=

X
p(0, r, , t) = p(0, r, t, 0) = qm (r) eim B+im Bt
m=

X
X
p(x, r, , t) = Q m Jm B (m B,r) eim B, xim B+im Bt
m= =1

m B 2

m B 2 jm0 B,1 2
Cut-on if: m2 B,1 = c0
2
m B,1 = c0 a >0
0
j B,1
a
or: Mtip = c0 > B ' 1.

Ideally: subsonic tip speed no cut-on modes ! In reality: blades and vanes. . .

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Tyler & Sofrins selection rule

Ingenious manipulation of periodicity in rotor blades B and stator vanes V :

X
X
X
p(, t) = Pn () e in Bt = Q nm e in Btim
n= n= m=
X
X
= Q nm (r) e in B(t1t)im(1) .
n= m=

with 1 = 2/V in a time step 1t = 1/ because vanes are fixed to our coord. system. So:

ein B1t+im1 = 1 = e2ik , or: m = kV+nB, k Z.

Finally (subtle!): Wave crest of each nm-component corresponds with n Bt m = constant,
n Ba
vphase = .
m
No radiated sound if |vphase | < c0 !
Since (usually) tip speed a < c0 , this is if

|n|B |m| = |kV + n B|, or: V 2|n|B. For 1st harmonic (n = 1): V 2B
(and this is how real engines are designed!)

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Greens function in lined duct

Illustration of Fourier transformation technique.
2
2 2
c0 p i + U0 p = c02 (x x 0 ) and impedance BC
x
Write

X Z
im(0 )
p(x, r, ) = e pm (r, ) ei(xx0 ) d.
b
m=

2b
pm pm 2 m 2
1 b (r r0 )
+ + b
p m = with 2 = 2 ( U0 )2 .
r 2 r r r2 4 2 r0
Fourier transformation in k and back-transformation in :

X Jm (mr)Jm (mr0 )
1 im (xx 0 )
pm (r, x) = sign(x x0 ) e
2i Q m Jm2 (m )
=1
Sum over modes!

Similar is possible for non-uniform shear flow. Modes + other waves + interaction of sound with shear
flow. . .
(see movies)

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Reflection at/radiation from open end

Inside duct: incident mode with reflected field, p(x, r, ) = pm (x, r) eim where

X
ikm x
pm (x, r) = Um (r) e + Rm Um (r) e ikm x .
=1

Outside: in the far field

eik%
pm (x, r) ' Dm ( ) (k%),
k%

where x = % cos , r = % sin ,

Dm ( ) is the directivity function,
|Dm ( )| is the radiation pattern.

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1 1.5
|R |
011

0.8 1
022

0.6 0.5 011
|R
021
| |R
022
|
012
0.4 0

021
0.2 |R | 0.5
012

0 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 1.5

122
0.8 1
|R |
|R
111
| 122
111
0.6 0.5

|R | 112
0.4 121 0

121
0.2 |R | 0.5
112

0 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Modulus and phase of reflection coefficients Rm for

m = 0 . . . 2, , = 1, 2, as a function of ka = 0 . . . 7.(|Rm | = 1: total reflection.)

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90 100 90 100
120 60
120 60

60
60
150 30 150 30

20 20

180 0 180 0

210 330 210 330

240 300 240 300

270 270

Radiation pattern 20 log10 |Dm |

for m = 01, = 11 and ka = 2, 4, 6.
Notes: lobes!

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Slowly varying duct: Websters horn

Slowly varying hard-walled duct (horn) with cross section A(X), X = x, is small.

m n

t x
l
A
r

If free field wave number k = K is small and p ' p(X), we can simplify the reduced wave equation

2 p + k 2 p = 0,

to Websters horn equation

d dp
A(X) + K 2 A(X) p(X) = 0
dX dX
Special solutions are possible for for example R(X) = R0 e X . (Musical instruments!)

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Slowly varying duct modes for higher frequencies

Slowly varying duct with cross section

r = R(X), X = x, is small
m n

t x
l
A
r

WKB solution: Rx
im i m ( ) d
p(x, r, ) = Nm (X)m (r; X) e
where m = Um and m are slowly varying (in X) mode and modal wave number.
This yields (eventually) a solution (hard walls)
2 constant
Nm = q
0 2 (1 M 2 )m
2

0 , M, m vary with X; analogous but more complicated for soft-walled duct. Note the turning point.
(see movies)

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Slowly varying duct modes: turning point behaviour

Rx constant
im i m ( ) d 2
p(x, r, ) = Nm (X)m (r; X) e , Nm = q
0 2 (1 M 2 )m
2

When 2 (1 M 2 )m
2 changes sign at some position x,

Nm is singular and wave number m changes from real (cut-on) to complex (cut-off): turning point.
(in reality: region.)

1 1 1

0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0 0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

Turbofan engine inlet. Mean flow from right

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Summary
Derivation of acoustic models: shear flow, uniform mean flow, no mean flow

Acoustic energy, Lorentz/Prandtl-Glauert transformation

Boundary conditions: hard walls, soft walls without and with mean flow

Duct modes: hard/soft walls, cut-on cut-off, group and phase velocity

Circular duct: Bessel functions, source expansion, modal power

Behaviour of soft-wall modes, surface waves

Propeller in duct, Tyler-Sofrin rule, Greens function

Open end radiation, reflection coefficient

Slowly varying ducts, turning point transition.

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