Linear motion

Linear motion

The motion of an object

along
a straight path is called
a linear motion.
A train running on a straight railway track
Vehicles moving on a straight highway
Sprinters running on a straight athletic track
Motion of a bowling ball
Motion diagrams

Frame-1
Motion diagrams

Frame-2
Motion diagrams

Frame-3
Motion diagrams

Frame-4
Motion diagrams

Motion diagram of a car moving towards a

tree
Motion diagrams

A racing car running on a track

Images that are equally spaced indicate

an object moving with constant speed.
Motion diagrams

A cyclist starting a race

An increasing distance between the

images
shows that the object is speeding up.
Motion diagrams

A car stopping for a red light

A decreasing distance between the

images
shows that the object is slowing down.
Particle model

Motion diagram of a racing car moving with constant speed

1 2 3 4

Same motion diagram using the particle model

Position

The location of an
object at a particular
instant is called its
position.
Position

(reference point)
(direction)
Your school W E
Your position

4 km
(distance)
Coordinate system

The school defines the origin of

the coordinate system

-1 0 1 2 3 4 (km)

Your position is at
+4 km
Case-I: Position is zero

-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 (m)

The car is at origin

x=0 m
Case-II: Position is positive
x
x

-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 (m)

The car is at positive side of origin

x=50 m
Case-III: Position is negative

x
x

-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 (m)

The car is at negative side of origin

x=−40 m
Displacement

The displacement of an object is

the change in the position of an
object in a particular direction.

∆ x =x f − x i
Case-I: Displacement is positive
∆x
A xi xf B
x

-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 (m)

If object is moving towards

∆ x =50 −(−20) right, the displacement is
positive because
∆ x =70 m xf > xi
Case-II: Displacement is negative
∆x
B xf xi A
x

-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 (m)

If object is moving towards

∆ x =−10 −( 40) left, the displacement is
negative because
∆ x =−50 m xf < xi
Case-III: Displacement is zero
xf B

xi A
x

-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 (m)

If object come to its initial

∆ x =40−( 40) position, the displacement is
zero because
∆ x =0 m xf = xi
Distance

The actual path covered by

an object is called a distance.

d =actual path covered

Distance
C A B
x

-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 (m)

|∆ x AB|=|x B − x A| |∆ x BC|=|x C − x B| d =|∆ x AB|+|∆ x BC|

¿|50− 10| ¿|−10 −50| ¿ 40+60
¿|40|= 40 m ¿|−60|=60 m ¿ 10 0 m
Velocity
The rate of change of position of an object in a
given direction is called its velocity.

displacement
V elocity=
time
• Vector quantity (magnitude & direction).
• SI unit is metre/second (m/s).
• Dimensional formula is [].
Case-I: Velocity is positive
v=20 m/s
∆ x =20 m ∆ x =20 m ∆ x =20 m ∆ x =20 m
x

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 (m)
0s 1s 2s 3s 4s

20
velocity = =20 m / s
1
Velocity is positive because change in position
is positive.
Case-II: Velocity is negative
v=− 15 m/s
∆ x =−15 m ∆ x =−15 m ∆ x =−15 m ∆ x =−15 m
x

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 (m)
4s 3s 2s 1s 0s

− 15
velocity= =− 15 m / s
1
Velocity is negative because change in position
is negative.
Case-III: Velocity is zero

0 s, 1 s, 2 s, 3 s, 4s
∆ x =0 m x

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 (m)

0
velocity = =0 m / s
1
Velocity is zero because change in position
is zero.
Speed
The rate at which an object covers a distance is
called a speed.

distance
S peed=
time
• Scalar quantity (only magnitude).
• SI unit is metre/second (m/s).
• Dimensional formula is [].
Case-I: Speed is positive
d =15 m d =15 m d =15 m d =15 m
x

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 (m)
0s 1s 2s 3s 4s

15
s peed= =15 m / s
1
If an object moves it cover some distance and
hence the speed is positive.
Case-II: Speed is zero

0 s, 1 s, 2 s, 3 s, 4s
d =0 m x

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 (m)

0
s peed= =0 m / s
1
If an object is at rest the distance covered is zero
and hence the speed is zero.
Average velocity
4s 3s
E v DE D
0s 1s 2s
A v AB B v BC C v CD D
x

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 (m)

10 − 0 10 70 −30 4 0
v AB= = =10 m / s v CD = = =4 0 m / s
1 −0 1 3 −2 1

30 − 10 2 0 40 −70 −3 0
v BC = = =20 m / s v DE = = =−3 0 m / s
2− 1 1 4−3 1
Average velocity

For an object moving with variable velocity,

average velocity is defined as the ratio of its
total displacement to the total time interval
in which that displacement occurs.

total displacement
Average velocity=
total time
Average velocity
4s 3s
E v DE D
0s 1s 2s
A v AB B v BC C v CD D
x

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 (m)

10 +20+ 40 − 30
v avg =
1+1+1+1
40
v avg = = 10 m / s
4
Average velocity

If and are the positions of an object at

times and , then the average velocity
from time to is given by

x 2 − x1 ∆ x
v avg = =
t 2 −t 1 ∆t
Average velocity
4s 3s
E v DE D
0s 1s 2s
A v AB B v BC C v CD D
x

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 (m)

40 − 0 40
v avg = =
4−0 4
v avg =10 m / s
Average speed
4s 3s
E S DE D
0s 1s 2s
A S AB B S BC C SCD D
x

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 (m)

|1 0 − 0| |1 0| |70 −30| |40|

S AB = = =1 0 m / s SCD = = = 40 m / s
1 −0 1 3 −2 1

|30 − 10| |20| |40 −70| |− 30|

S BC = = = 20 m / s S DE= = =30 m / s
2− 1 1 4−3 1
Average speed

For an object moving with variable speed,

the average speed is the total distance
travelled by the object divided by the total
time taken to cover that distance.

total distance
Average speed =
total time
Average speed
4s 3s
E S DE D
0s 1s 2s
A S AB B S BC C SCD D
x

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 (m)

10+ 20+ 40+30

S avg=
1+1+1+ 1
100
S avg= =25 m / s
4
Instantaneous velocity

The velocity of an object at a particular

instant of time or at a particular point of its
path is
called its instantaneous velocity.
0s 1s 2s 3s
A v A =15 m / s B v B =20 m / s C v C =10 m / s v D =− 5 m/ s D
x

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 (m)
Instantaneous velocity
∆x
A ∆t B
C vC x

∆x
A ∆t B
C vC x
Instantaneous velocity
∆x
A ∆t B
C vC x

dx
dt
C vC x
Instantaneous velocity
Instantaneous velocity is equal to the
limiting value of the average velocity of the
object in a small time interval taken around
that instant, when time interval approaches
zero.
x 2 − x1 ∆ x dx
v= lim = lim =
∆ t → 0 t 2 − t1 ∆t→0 ∆ t dt
Instantaneous speed

The magnitude of instantaneous

velocity is called instantaneous
speed.
S A =15 m / s S B=20 m / s SC =10 m / s S D =5 m / s
A B C D
x

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 (m)
0s 1s 2s 3s
Acceleration
The rate of change of velocity of an object with
time is called its acceleration.

change ∈velocity
a cceleration=
time
• Vector quantity (magnitude & direction).
• SI unit is metre/second/second (m/).
• Dimensional formula is [].
Case-I: Velocity is constant
2 2 2
a=0 m / s a=0 m / s a=0 m / s

∆ v =0 m/ s ∆ v =0 m/ s ∆ v =0 m/ s
v=20 m/ s v=20 m/ s v=20 m/ s v=20 m/ s x
0s 1s 2s 3s

2
a cceleration=0 m/ s
Acceleration is zero because change in velocity
is zero.
Case-II: Velocity is increasing towards right
2 2 2
a=5 m / s a=5 m / s a=5 m / s

∆ v =5 m/s ∆ v =5 m/s ∆ v =5 m/s

v A =5 m / s v B =10 m / s v C =15 m / s v D =20 m / s x
0s 1s 2s 3s

2
a cceleration=5 m/ s
Acceleration is positive because change in velocity
is positive.
Case-III: Velocity is decreasing towards right

a=− 4 m / s
2
a=− 4 m/ s 2 a=− 4 m/ s
2

∆ v =− 4 m/ s ∆ v =− 4 m/ s ∆ v =− 4 m/ s
v A =20 m / s v B =16 m / s v C =12 m / s v D =8 m / s x
0s 1s 2s 3s

2
a cceleration=− 4 m/ s
Acceleration is negative because change in velocity
is negative.
Case-IV: Velocity is increasing towards left
2 2 2
a=− 3 m/ s a=− 3 m/ s a=− 3 m/ s

∆ v =−3 m/ s ∆ v =−3 m/ s ∆ v =−3 m/ s

x v D =− 12m / s v C =− 9 m/ s v B =−6 m/ s v A =−3 m / s

3s 2s 1s 0s

2
a cceleration=− 3 m/ s
Acceleration is negative because change in velocity
is negative.
Case-V: Velocity is increasing towards left
2 2 2
a=6 m / s a=6 m / s a=6 m / s

∆ v =6 m/ s ∆ v =6 m/ s ∆ v =6 m/ s
v D =− 6 m/ s v C =− 12 m/ s v B =−18 m/ s v A =−24 m/ s x
3s 2s 1s 0s

2
a cceleration=6 m/ s
Acceleration is positive because change in velocity
is positive.
Important note

• If the signs of the velocity and acceleration

of an object are the same, the speed of the
object increases.

• If the signs are opposite, the speed

decreases.
Average acceleration
∆ v AB =−5 m /s ∆ v BC =− 20 m/s ∆ v CD =35 m/s ∆ v DE=− 40 m/s

v A =20 m / s v B =15 m / s v C =− 5 m/ s v D =30 m / s v E =−10 m/ s

A B C D E x
0s 2s 4s 6s 8s

15 − 20 −5 2 30 −(−5) 35
a AB = = =−2.5 m / s a CD = = =17.5 m / s 2
2−0 2 6−4 2

−5 −15 − 20 2 −10 −30 − 4 0 2

aBC = = =− 10 m / s a DE = = =−2 0 m/ s
4−2 2 8 −6 2
Average acceleration

For an object moving with variable velocity,

the average acceleration is defined as the
ratio of the total change in velocity of the
object to the total time interval taken.

total change ∈velocity

Average acceleration=
total time
Average acceleration
∆ v AB =−5 m /s ∆ v BC =− 20 m/s ∆ v CD =35 m/s ∆ v DE=− 40 m/s

v A =20 m / s v B =15 m / s v C =− 5 m/ s v D =30 m / s v E =−10 m/ s

A B C D E x
0s 2s 4s 6s 8s

−5 −20 +35 − 40
a avg =
2+ 2+2+2
−30 2
a avg = =−3.75 m / s
8
Average acceleration

If and are the velocities of an object at

times and , then the average acceleration
from time to is given by

v2 − v1 ∆ v
a avg = =
t 2 −t 1 ∆t
Average acceleration
∆ v AB =−5 m /s ∆ v BC =− 20 m/s ∆ v CD =35 m/s ∆ v DE=− 40 m/s

v A =20 m / s v B =15 m / s v C =− 5 m/ s v D =30 m / s v E =−10 m/ s

A B C D E x
0s 2s 4s 6s 8s

−10 −20 − 30
a avg = =
8 −0 8
2
a avg =−3.75 m / s
Instantaneous acceleration

The acceleration of an object at a

particular instant of time or at a particular
point of its path is called its instantaneous
A
2
a =25 m / s acceleration.
a =15 m/ s
B
2
a =10 m / s C
2
a =− 5 m / s D
2

A B C D
x

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 (m)
0s 1s 2s 3s
Instantaneous acceleration
∆v
A ∆t B
C aC t

∆v
A ∆t B
C aC t
Instantaneous acceleration
∆v
A ∆t B
C aC t

dv
dt
C aC t
Instantaneous acceleration

Instantaneous acceleration is equal to the

limiting value of the average acceleration of the
object in a small time interval taken around that
instant, when time interval approaches zero.

( )
v 2 − v1 ∆ v dv d d x
2
d x
a= lim = lim = = = 2
∆ t → 0 t 2 − t1 ∆ t→0 ∆ t d t dt dt dt
Uniformly accelerated motion

The motion in which the velocity of

an object changes with uniform
rate or constant rate is called
uniformly accelerated motion.
Uniformly accelerated motion

A car slowing down after a red

signal

A car speeding up after a green

signal
Kinematical equations of motion
xi xf x
T =0 T =t
vi vf

1. Velocity after a certain time:

By definition, v f − v i= a t
change ∈velocity
acceleration=
time v f = v i +a t
vf − vi
a=
t −0 This is the first kinematical equation.
Kinematical equations of motion
2. Displacement in a certain time:
By definition, x f − x i v i+ v i + a t 2 vi + a t
= =
displacement t 2 2
average velocity =
time xf − xi 2 vi at
= +
x f − xi t 2 2
v avg =
t−0 xf − xi 1
= vi + a t
But, t 2
vi + vf
v avg = 1
2 x f − x i= v i t + a t
2
2
xf − xi vi + v f
∴ =
t 2 This is the second kinematical equation.
Kinematical equations of motion
3. Velocity after certain
Wedisplacement:
know that, multiplying equations (1) & (2), we get

v f = v i +a t
v f − v i= a t
()
(v ¿ ¿ f − v i)(v f +v i)=a t (x f − x i)
2
t
¿
… … ..(1) 2 2
L . H . S= v f − v i
Also,
v f + vi xf − xi
= 2 2
2 t v f − v i =2 a ( x f − x i)
2 2

( )
2 … … ..(2) v f = v i +2 a( x f − x i )
v f + v i = x f − xi
t
This is the third kinematical equation.
Equations of motion by calculus method
1. First equation of motion:
vf t t
By definition,
∫ dv=∫ a dt¿ a∫0 dt
dv vi 0
a=
dt vf t
[ v ] =a [ t ]
vi 0
dv =a dt … … ..(1)
v f − v i=a (t − 0)
When time = 0, velocity =
When time = t, velocity = v f − v i= a t
Integrating equation (1) within the
above limits of time & velocity, we get
v f = v i +a t
Equations of motion by calculus method
2. Second equation of motion: xf t t

By definition, ∫ d x =∫ v dt¿ ∫
0
¿ ¿
xi 0
dx xf t t
v=
dt ∫ dx=∫ v i dt +∫ a t dt
xi 0 0

d x=v dt
[ ]
… … ..(1) xf t t 2 t
[ x ] =v i [ t ] + a
xi 0
When time = 0, position = 2 0
1 2 2
When time = t, position = ( )
x f − x i=v i t −0 + a (t − 0 )
2
Integrating equation (1) within the above 1 2
x f − x i= v i t + a t
limits of time & position, we get 2
Equations of motion by calculus method
3. Second equation of motion: vf xf
By definition, ∫ v d v =∫ a d x
vi xi
dv dv dx dv
a= ¿ × ¿ ×v
[ ]
2 vf
dt dx dt dx v xf
=a [ x ] xi
2
v d v=a d x … … ..(1) vi

2 vf
[v ]vi = 2 a [ x ]x
xf

When time = 0, velocity = , position = i

2 2
When time = t, velocity = , position = v f − v i =2 a ( x f − x i)

Integrating equation (1) within the above 2 2

v = v +2 a( x f − x i )
f i
limits of velocity & position, we get
Graphical
representation
of motion
Position-time graph
x
Time (s) Position (m) 60

0 30 40

5 55 20

10 40 0 t
15 0 -20
20 -35 -40
25 -55 -60
5 10 15 20 25 30
Average velocity from position-time graph
x Slope of line AB gives average velocity
60 A (5,55) between points A & B.

40 slope of line AB=tan θ

20
∆x x2 − x1
0 t tan θ= = = v avg
∆x ∆t t2 − t 1
-20
− 55 − 55 −110
-40 v avg ( AB) = =
∆t θ B (25,-55)
25 − 5 20
-60
5 10 15 20 25 30 v avg ( AB) =−5.5 m / s
Instantaneous velocity from position-time graph
Slope of tangent at point B gives
60 instantaneous velocity at point B.

40 slope of tangent =tan θ

20
A (5,5) ∆x x2 − x1
0 t tan θ = = =v
∆t t2 − t 1
-20 ∆x − 55 − 5 − 60
-40 vB= =
∆t θ B (25,-55)
25 − 5 20
-60
5 10 15 20 25 30 v B =− 3 m / s
nalyzing nature of motion through position–time grap

0 v=0
x
A B

The particle is at rest on positive

side of origin.

t
nalyzing nature of motion through position–time grap

For portion AB:

x
v 0
x
C
θ
The particle is at negative side of origin and
moving with constant velocity towards origin.
t
B
θ For portion BC:

0v
x
A
θ The particle is at origin and moving with
constant velocity towards right side of origin.
nalyzing nature of motion through position–time grap

For portion AB:

x
0 v
x
θ
A The particle is at positive side of origin and
moving with constant velocity towards origin.

θ t For portion BC:

B
v0
x
θ
C
The particle is at origin and moving with
constant velocity towards left side of origin.
nalyzing nature of motion through position–time grap

For portion AB:

x a
v 0
C
θ3 x
The particle is at negative side of origin and
moving with increasing velocity towards origin.
B
θ2 t For portion BC:
a
A 0 v
θ1 x
The particle is at origin and moving with
increasing velocity towards right side of origin.
nalyzing nature of motion through position–time grap

For portion AB:

x a
C v 0
θ3 x
The particle is at negative side of origin and
moving with decreasing velocity towards origin.
B
θ2 t For portion BC:
a
0v
x
A
θ1 The particle is at origin and moving with
decreasing velocity towards right side of origin.
nalyzing nature of motion through position–time grap

For portion AB:

x a
0 v
x
θ1
A The particle is at positive side of origin and
moving with increasing velocity towards origin.
θ2
t For portion BC:
B
a
v 0
x
θ3
C The particle is at origin and moving with
increasing velocity towards left side of origin.
nalyzing nature of motion through position–time grap

For portion AB:

x a
θ1 0 v
A x
The particle is at positive side of origin and
moving with decreasing velocity towards origin.
θ2
B
t For portion BC:
a
v0
θ3 x
C
The particle is at origin and moving with
decreasing velocity towards left side of origin.
Velocity-time graph
v
Time (s) velocity (m/s) 60

0 -40 40

5 0 20

10 20 0 t
15 10 -20
20 -20 -40
25 -40 -60
5 10 15 20 25 30
Average acceleration from velocity-time graph
v Slope of line AB gives average
60 acceleration between points A & B.
40 slope of line AB=tan θ
A (5,0)
20
∆v v2− v1
0 t tan θ = = = aavg
∆t t 2 − t1
-20 ∆v − 40− 0 − 40
-40 θ B (25,-40) a avg ( AB) = =
∆t 25 − 5 20
-60
5 10 15 20 25 30 2
a avg ( AB) =−2 m / s
nstantaneous acceleration from velocity-time grap
v Slope of line AB gives instantaneous
60 acceleration between points A & B.
40 A (5,7) slope of tangent =tan θ
20
∆v v2− v1
0 t tan θ = = =a
∆t t 2 − t1
-20 ∆v
− 40 − 7 −47
-40 θ B (25,-40) aB= =
∆t 25 − 10 15
-60
5 10 15 20 25 30 2
a B =− 3.14 m / s
nalyzing nature of motion through velocity–time grap

v
a= 0
v v
x
A B

The particle is moving with

constant velocity towards right.

t
nalyzing nature of motion through velocity–time grap

For portion AB:

v a a a
C v3 v2 v1
θ x
The particle is moving towards left and its
t velocity is uniformly decreasing.
B
θ For portion BC:
a a a
v4 v5 v6
x
A
θ The particle is moving towards right and its
velocity is uniformly increasing.
nalyzing nature of motion through velocity–time grap

For portion AB:

v a a a
v1 v2 v3
θ x
A
The particle is moving towards right and its
velocity is uniformly decreasing.
θ t For portion BC:
B
a a a
v6 v5 v4
θ x
C
The particle is moving towards left and its
velocity is uniformly increasing.
nalyzing nature of motion through velocity–time grap

For portion AB:

v a3 a2 a1
v3 v2 v1
C
θ3 x
The particle is moving towards left and its velocity
is decreasing slowly at non-uniform rate.
B
θ2 t For portion BC:
a4 a5 a6
A v4 v5 v6
θ1 x
The particle is moving towards right and its
velocity is increasing rapidly at non-uniform rate.
nalyzing nature of motion through velocity–time grap

For portion AB:

v a3 a2 a1
C v3 v2 v1
θ3 x
The particle is moving towards left and its velocity
is decreasing rapidly at non-uniform rate.
B
θ2 t For portion BC:
a4 a5 a6
v4 v5 v6
x
A
θ1 The particle is moving towards right and its
velocity is increasing slowly at non-uniform rate.
nalyzing nature of motion through position–time grap

For portion AB:

v a1 a2 a3
v1 v2 v3
x
θ1
A The particle is moving towards right and its
velocity is decreasing slowly at non-uniform rate.
θ2
t For portion BC:
B
a6 a5 a4
v6 v5 v4
θ3
x
C The particle is moving towards left and its velocity
is increasing rapidly at non-uniform rate.
nalyzing nature of motion through position–time grap

For portion AB:

v a1 a2 a3
θ1 v1 v2 v3
A
x
The particle is moving towards right and its
velocity is decreasing rapidly at non-uniform rate.
θ2
B
t For portion BC:
a6 a5 a4
θ3 v6 v5 v4
x
C
The particle is moving towards left and its velocity
is increasing slowly at non-uniform rate.
Acceleration–time graph
a
acceleration 60
Time (s) (m/)
40
0 20
20
5 50
10 30 0 t
15 0 -20

20 -30 -40

25 -40 -60
5 10 15 20 25 30
alyzing nature of motion through acceleration–time gra

a a
x
A B

The particle is moving with

constant acceleration.

t
alyzing nature of motion through acceleration–time gra

For portion AB:

a
a3 a2 a1
C
θ x
The acceleration of particle is uniformly
t decreasing towards left.
B
θ For portion BC:
a4 a5 a6
x
A
θ The acceleration of particle is uniformly
increasing towards right.
alyzing nature of motion through acceleration–time gra

For portion AB:

a
a1 a2 a3
θ x
A
The acceleration of particle is uniformly
decreasing towards right.
θ t For portion BC:
B
a6 a5 a4
θ x
C
The acceleration of particle is uniformly
increasing towards left.
Graphical
integration in
motion analysis
a F rom graph ,
area of strip= a d t
B y definition,
d v=a d t
N et change∈ velocity ¿ time t i ¿ t f ,
vf tf

a ∫ dv=∫ a dt
vi ti

( )
area between acceleration curve
v f − v i= ¿ time axis , t i¿ t f ¿
ti dt tf
t ¿
v F rom graph ,
area of strip= v d t
B y definition,
d x=v d t
N et change∈ position ¿ time t i ¿ t f ,
xf tf

v ∫ d x =∫ v dt
xi ti

( )
area between velocity curve
x f − x i= ¿ time axis , t i ¿t f ¿
ti dt tf
t ¿
Thank
you