FORMATION OF

ELEMENTS
Picture Formula

- Mac + + Theory

https://foodgressing.com/mcdonalds-grand-
big-mac-2021-calories-price-review/

= __________
 Give evidence for and describe
the formation of heavier elements
during star formation and
evolution (S11/12PS-IIIa-2)
 Explain how the concept of atomic
number led to the synthesis of
new elements in the laboratory.
(s11/12PS-IIIb-11)
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1. it is a remnant from an early stage

of the universe also known as “relic
radiation”

CISMOC EVAWORCIM GKCBAOUDNRG

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1. it is a remnant from an early stage

of the universe also known as “relic
radiation”

COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND

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2. It is the increase in distance

between any two given
gravitationally unbound parts of the
observable universe with time.

DNGINAPEX REVSENIU
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2. It is the increase in distance

between any two given
gravitationally unbound parts of the
observable universe with time.

EXPANDING UNIVERSE
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3. It is a form of matter thought to

account for approximately 85% of
the matter in the universe and about
a quarter of its total mass-energy
density or about 2.241 x 10-27
kg/m3
KARD TRETAM
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3. It is a form of matter thought to

account for approximately 85% of
the matter in the universe and about
a quarter of its total mass-energy
density or about 2.241 x 10-27
kg/m3
DARK MATTER
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4. It is a form of energy that

affects the universe on the
largest scales.

ARKD GENEYR
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4. It is a form of energy that

affects the universe on the
largest scales.

DARK ENERGY
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5. During this time, it was

hypothesized that the four
fundamental forces have the same
strength, and are possibly even
unified into one fundamental force.

CKLANP CHEPO
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5. During this time, it was

hypothesized that the four
fundamental forces have the same
strength, and are possibly even
unified into one fundamental force.

PLANCK EPOCH
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6. The period after the formation

of the first atoms and before the
first stars.

KRDA EAG
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6. The period after the formation

of the first atoms and before the
first stars.

DARK AGE
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7. During this time, the universe

underwent an extremely rapid
exponential expansion.

INNARYOITALF CHOPE
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7. During this time, the universe

underwent an extremely rapid
exponential expansion.

INFLATIONARY EPOCH
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8. The temperature of the universe falls to the

point (about a billion degrees) where atomic
nuclei can begin to form as protons and neutrons
combine through nuclear fusion to form the
nuclei of the simple elements of hydrogen,
helium and lithium.

SISOELCUNEHTNYS
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8. The temperature of the universe falls to the

point (about a billion degrees) where atomic
nuclei can begin to form as protons and neutrons
combine through nuclear fusion to form the
nuclei of the simple elements of hydrogen,
helium and lithium.

NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
The Big Bang theory

- is a cosmological model of the observable universe from the

earliest known ages through its succeeding large-scale evolution.
The Big Bang theory The model describes the
processing of expanding
universe from an initial state of
extremely high density and
high temperature, and offers a
complete explanation for a
broad range of observed
phenomena, including the
abundance of light elements,
the cosmic microwave
background (CMB)
radiation, and large-scale
structure.
The Big Bang theory

Crucially, the theory is well-matched with Hubble's law – the thought that the farther away galaxies are, the
faster they are moving away from Earth.
The Big Bang theory

https://phys.org/news/2015-12-big-
theory.html

After its initial expansion, the universe cooled appropriately to

allow the formation of subatomic particles, and later atoms.
The Big Bang theory

Giant clouds of these primordial

elements – mostly 24% of the
universe’s ordinary matter is currently
comprised of helium, about 74%
hydrogen, and 2% of other
elements (relative abundance)-later
merged through gravity, forming early
stars and galaxies, the progenies of
which are visible today.

https://phys.org/news/2015-12-big-
theory.html
The Big Bang theory

https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-is-
dark-energy

Besides these primordial building materials,

astronomers observe the gravitational effects of an
unknown dark matter surrounding galaxies.
The Big Bang theory

Most of the gravitational

potential in the universe
seems to be in this form,
and the Big Bang theory
and various observations
indicate that it is not
conventional baryonic
matter that forms atoms.

https://www.space.com/20502-dark-matter-universe-mystery-infographic.html
The Big Bang theory

https://www.space.com/20502-dark-matter-universe-mystery-infographic.html
The Big Bang theory

Georges Lemaître
-first noted in 1927 that an
expanding universe could
be traced back in time to
an originating single point,
which he called the
"primeval atom".
https://www.space.com/20502-dark-matter-universe-mystery-infographic.html
The Big Bang theory

Edwin Hubble
-concluded from analysis
of galactic redshifts in
1929 that galaxies are
drifting apart; this is
important observational
evidence for an expanding
https://www.nasa.gov/content/about-story-edwin-hubble
universe.
https://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/
topics_bigbang_timeline.html
https://xkcd.wtf/
2240/
G BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
-from 3 minutes to 20 minutes. The temperature of
the universe falls to the point (about a billion
degrees) where atomic nuclei can begin to form as
protons and neutrons combine through nuclear
fusion to form the nuclei of the simple elements of
hydrogen, helium, lithium. After about 20
minutes, the temperature and density of the
universe has fallen to the point where nuclear
fusion cannot continue.
 In Big Bang nucleosynthesis,
- there are free neutrons participating in the nuclear reactions.
Number of protons
and neutrons
(Mass Number)

Number of protons
(Atomic Number)
Important Symbols Used in Nuclear
To write a nuclear
reaction, you Equations
Particle How written in a nuclear reaction
must remember Proton 1 1
how to read and p or H
use isotope 1 1
symbol notation Neutron 1
n
0

Electron 0 0
(Beta particle) e or β
-1 -1
 You must know
the symbols used Alpha Particle 4 4
for various (Helium nuclei)  or He
2 2
subatomic
particles like Gamma Particle 
protons, or Ray (a massless packet of pure
neutrons, etc. electromagnetic radiation, a form
of energy)
ELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
Elements heavier than
beryllium are formed
through stellar
nucleosynthesis. It is
the process by which
elements are formed
within stars as a result
of nuclear fusion. https://www.universetoday.com/51797/
nucleosynthesis/
ELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
Hydrogen and helium atoms in
stars began combining in
nuclear fusion reactions once
hydrogen-helium stars had
formed from the action of
gravity. This releases a
tremendous amount of light,
heat, and radioactive energy. https://www.wondriumdaily.com/helium-and-hydrogen-similarities-and-differences/

Fusion resulted in the formation

of nuclei of new elements.
ELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
The first fusion process
occurs in the hydrogen core
of stars such as the sun
with a temperature of less
than 15 million K. These
kinds of stars are called
main-sequence stars. https://www.atnf.csiro.au/outreach/education/senior/astrophysics/
stellarevolution_mainsequence.html

https://www.atnf.csiro.au/outreach/education/senior/astrophysics/
stellarevolution_mainsequence.html
Stellar nucleosynthesis
- the process involving nuclear
reactions through which fresh
atomic nuclei are synthesized
from pre-existing nuclei or
nucleons.
in branch proton-proton chain
In the process known as the
main-branch proton-proton
chain, Deuterium (D or 2H)
forms from proton fusion,
with one proton turning into
a neutron via beta-plus
decay, giving off a neutrino
and a positron.
https://www.atnf.csiro.au/outreach/education/senior/astrophysics/
stellarevolution_mainsequence.html
Deuterium burning
3He forms from
deuterium and proton
fusion, also known as
deuterium burning.
This immediately
consumes all
deuterium produced.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gMzk4Kl8Px4
in branch proton-proton chain
Then 4He forms from 3He
fusion

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gMzk4Kl8Px4
A star with a very
dense helium core
and a hydrogen
shell expands into a
red giant due to
increased radiation
pressure.
https://www.open.edu/openlearn/mod/oucontent/view.php?
id=114775&section=1.2
riple alpha process
Alpha particles refer to 4He.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=gMzk4Kl8Px4
riple alpha process

-this reaction
involves the
fusion of three
4He atoms

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=gMzk4Kl8Px4
riple alpha process
Alpha fusion processes
continue in the core via
the alpha ladder. More
and more alpha particles
are fused to create
heavier elements all the
way to iron, making the
core and star itself more
massive.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=gMzk4Kl8Px4
Alpha ladder

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=gMzk4Kl8Px4
Alpha ladder

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=gMzk4Kl8Px4
Alpha ladder

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=gMzk4Kl8Px4
rbon fusion cycle (CNO cycle)
The main-sequence stars hotter
than 15 million K could facilitate
the production of helium once
carbon was present from alpha
processes. This happens through
a process where 12C is used as a
catalyst known as the carbon
fusion cycle or the CNO cycle.
CNO cycle is the process that
involves repeated proton capture
and beta-plus decay https://www.atnf.csiro.au/outreach/education/senior/astrophysics/
stellarevolution_mainsequence.html
rbon fusion cycle (CNO cycle)
The main-sequence stars hotter
than 15 million K could facilitate
the production of helium once
carbon was present from alpha
processes. This happens through
a process where 12C is used as a
catalyst known as the carbon
fusion cycle or the CNO cycle.
CNO cycle is the process that
involves repeated proton capture
and beta-plus decay https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=gMzk4Kl8Px4
rbon fusion cycle (CNO cycle)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=gMzk4Kl8Px4
mation of elements heavier than iron
The star will eventually be unable to
generate energy to push against
gravity due to the formation of
heavier elements, thus causing it to
collapse on itself.
It then undergoes a supernova
explosion that releases a
tremendous amount of energy
enough to synthesize elements An animation showing the final
stages of a Type II supernova
heavier than iron. explosion.
http://www.vikdhillon.staff.shef.ac.uk/teaching/phy213/
phy213_highmass.html
mation of elements heavier than iron
Examples of these elements are uranium and thorium, which
are some of the heaviest known elements.

https://www.fairewinds.org/uranium- https://periodictable.com/Items/090.6/
mining index.html
mation of elements heavier than iron

This is done through

the r-process that
involves rapid
capture of neutrons
by the atom.
mation of elements heavier than iron
Other heavy
elements are also
synthesized
through s-process
involving slow
neutron capture in
red giants.
The r-process and s-process are
processes that change the atom’s
atomic weight, after which the atom
undergoes various decay processes to
change its identity.
Let’s Try
Complete and
identify the
following nuclear
reactions: • → ____ +
→ ____ + • → ____ +
→ ____ + • → ____
→ ____
Let’s Try
Complete and
identify the
following nuclear
reactions: • → ____ +
→ ____ + • → ____ +
→ ____ + • → ____
→ ____
Balancing Nuclear
Reactions Check the math
on these
examples of
238
92 U nuclear
equations to see
if the sums of
32
P the mass
15
numbers and the
atomic numbers
are the same on
10
5 B each side of the
equations.

Can you figure

out which
Transmutation
Transmutation is a general term for the changing of chemical element or
isotope to another by changing the number of protons and/or neutrons. Fusion
and fission reactions both qualify as transmutations. The bombardment of a
nucleus by a nuclear bullet in order to change it into another element also
counts as transmutation.