Origin of the Universe:

Big Bang Theory

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Introduction
▪Chemical elements exist everywhere.
▪They constitute all living and non-
living things. They are known to have
originated with the universe. They
were and are continuously and
naturally synthesized through different
processes and events in the universe.
▪In this chapter, you will discover the
different processes of element
formation after the big bang and
during stellar formation and evolution.
The Big Bang Theory
▪There are several theories about the
origin of the universe.
▪The widely accepted is the Big Bang
Theory, which was first proposed in Georges
1920 by Belgian astronomer Georges Lemaitre
Lemaître as the “primeval atom’
theory.
▪In 1922, Russian mathematician
Aleksandr Friedmann formulated the
governing equation of the theory that Aleksandr
paved the way for its recognition as Friedmann
the “big bang” in 1940.
The Big Bang Theory
▪According to the Big Bang Theory,
about 13.7 billion years ago, all matter
and energy in the universe existed in a
compact point called singularity.
▪Then, an imbalance in the compact
point caused it to expand.
▪This event is referred to as the big
bang, which hurled matter and energy
in all directions.
Time Era Temperature Characteristics of the Universe
• Infinitely small, dense primeval fireball
0 to 10-43s Big bang Infinite • Superunified force (Gravity, strong force, electromagnetic force and weak
force were unified.)
• Earliest known time that can be described by modern physics.
10-43s Planck time 1032 K • Gravity separated from unified force. Strong electromagnetic, and weak
forces were referred to as unified force (grand unified theory, GUT).

• Strong forces separated. Unified force consisted of electromagnetic and weak

10-35s End of GUT 1027 K forces.
• Quarks and leptons formed, along with their antiparticles.
10-35s to 10-33s Inflation 1027 K • The size of the universe drastically increased by a factor of 1030 to 1040.
• Electromagnetic and weak nuclear forces separated; none of the unified
End of unified
10-12s 1015 K forces existed.
forces
• Protons and neutrons started forming from quarks.
10-7s Heavy particle 1014 K • Proton and neutron production in full swing.
10-4s Light particle 1012 K • Formation of electrons and positrons.
100s (a few Nucleosynthesi • Formation of helium, deuterium, and few other elements.
109 – 107 K
minutes) s
• Matter and radiation separated.
380, 000 years Recombination 3000 K
• End of domination and the start of matter domination in the universe.
500 million Galaxy • Galaxies and other large structures formed in the universe.
10 K
years ago formation
Evidences of the Big Bang
❑REDSHIFT
➢American astronomer Edwin Hubble
proved that, as observed from Earth,
the light emitted by faraway galaxies
shifted down toward the red end of
the spectrum. This essentially means
that the galaxies are moving away
from Earth.
➢Hubble explained that the shift was
caused by the expansion and
movement of the galaxies away
from Earth.
Evidences of the Big Bang
❑PRESENCE OF MICROWAVE RADIATION IN
THE ENTIRE UNIVERSE
➢Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)
➢This radiation is the thermal leftover of the
transition phase that occurred when the
hot early universe cooled enough for atoms
to combine.
➢The CMB was by Robert Wilson and Arno
Penzias.
➢The two scientists observed a measurable
degree of inconsistencies on the CMB in the
different regions in the universe.
Evidences of the Big Bang
❑ABUNDANCES OF LIGHT ELEMENTS IN THE
UNIVERSE
➢The actual abundances of hydrogen and
helium deduced from the spectra of the
oldest stars and gas clouds matched with
what were expected from the big bang
reactions.
➢These findings agree with the hypothesis of
the big bang theory.
Nucleosynthesis
▪During the big bang and the different
evolutionary stages of stars,
nucleosynthesis occurred.
▪Nucleosynthesis is the thermonuclear
reaction that produces a new chemical
element from another element.
▪It is classified into three catergories:
1. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
3. Supernova Nucleosynthesis
1. Big Bang
Nucleosynthesis
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
1. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
▪Primordial Nucleosynthesis
▪It pertains to the formation of light
elements in the early universe.
▪It is believed to have occurred in the
first few minutes of the big bang.
▪This theory was proposed by American
physicist George Gamow, Hans Bethe
and Ralph Asher Alpher.
1. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
▪According to the theory, the
temperature of the early universe was
very high that all matter were fully
ionized.
▪A few minutes after the big bang, the
universe cooled from 1032 kelvin to
about 109 , at which temperature
nucleosynthesis began to take place,
characterized by the following series of
reaction:
1. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
a. Protons and neutrons fused to form
deuterium.
b. Deuterium collided with other protons,
producing helium-3.
c. Deuterium fused with neutrons to
produce tritium.
d. Tritium and two deuterium nuclei
collided and formed lithium-7.
e. Helium-3 collided with neutrons,
forming helium-4.
▪These word reactions may be translated
to nuclear equations using the symbols
(next slide).
1. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
▪From the list below, all species of hydrogen, helium and lithium are
referred to as isotopes.
▪Isotopes are atoms of an element that have the same atomic number but
different mass numbers.
1. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

▪Using the particle symbols, the

nuclear reactions for the big bang
nucleosynthesis can then be written
as follows:
1. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
▪If you are given an incomplete nuclear
equation, how will you predict the missing
entities in the reaction?
▪The best thing to do is to observe the
conservation of mass numbers and atomic
number in the equation.
▪This means that the sum of the atomic
number of all species at the left-hand side of
the equation must be equal to the sum of the
atomic numbers of the species at the right-
hand side.
▪This also applies for the mass number.
▪To identify the missing element, refer to the
periodic table of elements and match the
element with the resulting atomic number.
1. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
▪Examples: Complete the reactions below.
1. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
▪The big bang nucleosynthesis theory predicts
that about 25 percent of the mass of the
universe consists of helium (helium-3 and
helium-4), while 0.01 percent is deuterium,
and a smaller quantity is lithium.
▪It also assumes that two unstable nuclei were
produced in the early universe – tritium and
beryllium-7. These predictions were made
based on the density of the neutrons and
protons at the time of nucleosynthesis.
▪The big bang nucleosynthesis did not produce
elements heavier than beryllium. The
temperature of the universe became too cool
for any nuclear fusion and nucleosynthesis to
occur. During this time, the abundances of the
elements in the universe became constant.
2. Stellar
Nucleosynthesis
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
▪The universe continuously expanded for
several years and the cloud of hydrogen and
helium gases condensed to form stars,
including the sun.
▪Over millions of years, the stars made of
hydrogen became hotter and denser.
▪During the stellar evolution, nuclear reactions
continued, which produced elements heavier
than lithium.
▪The light elements combined to form atoms of
carbon, neon, oxygen, silicon and iron.
2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
▪Starting from a small, young yellow star,
successive nuclear reactions occurred until it
became a giant red star.
▪The reaction involved in the formation of each
new element happened in regions or layers so
called fusion shells.
▪As more elements were produced, new layers
added up to the size of the start until it
became a red giant star.
▪Stars are described to have an “onion skin
structure” as they evolved and produced new
elements.
2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
❑HYDROGEN FUSION
▪ Younger yellow stars made up of hydrogen were
fueled by the energy released from the fusion of
hydrogen nuclei to form helium.
▪ In the outer layer of a yellow star, the burning of
hydrogen through nuclear fusion produced
helium.
▪ Once enough 42He was produced, these nuclei
became concentrated at the core of the star,
making the temperature hotter at the region.
▪ Hydrogen fusion continued, but in a shell
surrounding the helium core. The reactions in
the hydrogen fusion shell are shown as follows.
2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
❑HELIUM FUSION
▪ When the core reached the temperature enough
for helium fusion to occur, helium burning
began.
▪ The outer temperature then became colder than
the core, which caused the star to become red.
▪ 84𝐵𝑒 formed from helium fusion.
▪ Another 42H𝑒 nucleus with 84𝐵𝑒 forming 126𝐶.
▪ These reactions happened in the helium fusion
shell, beneath the hydrogen fusion shell.
2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
❑CARBON FUSION
▪ The carbon nuclei produced became more
concentrated at the center of the star, as helium
was earlier.
▪ This produced a carbon core, that when it
reached a certain temperature to allow carbon
fusion, it produced neon within carbon fusion
shell.
▪ Nuclear reactions that occurred in this shell
include the following.
2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis

❑NEON FUSION
▪ Neon then became concentrated at the core,
then underwent fusion to produce oxygen.
2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis

❑OXYGEN FUSION
▪ When oxygen become concentrated at the core,
nuclear fusion continued, producing silicon.
2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
❑The fusion of 28 56
14𝑆𝑖 produced radioactive 28𝑁𝑖,
which then decayed to iron.
❑More nuclear fusions happened between different
nuclei to form the other elements.
❑However, the production of elements stopped
when iron was formed. Since iron is the most stable
nuclei, it cannot undergo nuclear fusion.
❑In all previous reactions, a great amount of energy
is produced, enough to fuel more nuclear reactions.
❑However, in order to produced more elements
heavier than iron, energy input is necessary. At this
point, the star has already exhausted its nuclear
fuel.
2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
❑SLOW AND RAPID NEUTRON
CAPTURE
▪ Neutron capture processes are responsible
for the production of post-iron elements in
stars.
▪ About half of the abundances of these
elements in the solar system are produced
by slow neutron capture (s-process); the
other half are produced by rapid neutron
capture (r-process).
2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
❑SLOW NEUTRON PROCESS (s-process)
▪ The s-process occurs at relatively low
neutron densities and at intermediate
temperature conditions in stars. Heavy
nuclei formed by neutron capture increases
in mass numbers.
▪ As a nucleus decays by beta emission, the
resulting nucleus increases in atomic
number.
▪ In the s-process, the rate of neutron
capture by the atomic nuclei is slow relative
to the rate of radioactive beta decay. This
means that a nucleus will undergo beta
decay before another neutron is captured.
▪ This process produces stable isotopes.
2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
❑RAPID NEUTRON PROCESS (R-
process)
▪ In contrast, the r-process occurs at high
neutron densities.
▪ In this process, neutron capture is fast
enough that the resulting nucleus has no
time to undergo beta decay in between
neutron capture.
▪ The mass number therefore increases
during the reactions, while the atomic
number stays the same.
▪ Only when the resulting nucleus has
become highly unstable does it undergo
beta decay to form a nucleus of high atomic
number.
3. Supernova
Nucleosynthesis
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
3. Supernova Nucleosynthesis
❑It involves the production of new elements
during supernova.
❑A supernova is an explosion of a massive star
(5 to 50 times the mass of the sun) when it
runs out of nuclear fuel.
❑During the explosion, a high concentration of
neutrons is emitted. Rapid neutron process
gives rise to neutron-rich isotopes of heavier
elements. Highly unstable isotopes are
produced during this process since the rate of
neutron capture is greater than the beta
decay.
3. Supernova Nucleosynthesis
❑As discussed, various nucleosynthesis in the
universe produce the elements listed in the
periodic table.
❑Spectroscopic data gathered by astronomers
who examined the light emitted by distant
stars have shown that most of these stars
indeed contain the elements found in the
periodic table.