POSITION FIXING METHODS

Introduction
Position fixing is the branch of navigation concerned with the use of a
variety of visual and electronic methods to determine the coordinates of
unknown points on the surface of the Earth (ground) and these methods
include traversing, resection, intersection and trilateration.
Process of Topographic Surveying Contn
Traverse
A traverse consists of a series of straight lines connecting successive points. The points defining
the ends of the traverse lines are called traverse stations or traverse points.

Distance along the line between successive traverse points is determined either by direct
measurement using a tape or electronic distance measuring (EDM) equipment, or by indirect
measurement using tachometric methods. At each point where the traverse changes direction, an
angular measurement is taken using a theodolite.
Traverse
The equipments for the traverse are the theodolite, tapes, hand level, leveling staff, ranging
pole & plumb bobs, EDM & reflector, stakes & hubs, walkie talkies, & hammer etc.
Purpose of traverse: It is a convenient, rapid method for establishing horizontal control
particularly when the lines of sights are short due to heavily built up areas where triangulation
and trilateration are not applicable.
The purpose includes:
• Property surveys to locate or establish boundaries;
• Supplementary horizontal control for topographic mapping surveys;
• Location and construction layout surveys for high ways, railway, and other private and public
works;
• Ground control surveys for photogrammetric mapping.
Traverse
Types of traverse
1. Open traverse: It starts at a point of known position and terminates at a point of unknown
position.

• It is not possible to check the consistence of angles and distance measurement.

• To minimize errors, distances can be measured twice, angles turned by repetition, magnetic
bearings observed on all lines and astronomic observations made periodically (not done in
engineering works).
2. Closed traverse: - It originates at a point of known position and close on another point of
known horizontal position.
This type of traverse is preferable
to all others since computational
checks are possible which allow
detection of systematic errors in
both distance and direction.
POSITION FIXING METHODS
Sources of errors and precision of traversing
•When traversing, errors may arise in the following measurements.
a. Linear measurements: Errors in linear measurement are those as systematic, and
random errors. These errors in linear measurements should be corrected by considering
its type.
b. Angular measurements: There are two main sources of errors in the measurement
of the traverse angle.
•i) Observational errors:
 Due to lateral refraction, haze and wind the line of sight may not be truly straight.
It is therefore important to keep the line of sight 1m above ground on hot sunny days.
In wind and haze no need to attempt at accurate readings.
 If the signal is too large it is not possible to bisect accurately, and if the signal is
not plumbed vertically above the station mark, wrong direction will be observed.
Therefore try and always observe directly on the station mark. If this is not possible,
sight to a plumb-bob or accurately plumbed target or signal; never sight to a hand
held ranging rod.
 Errors can arise in mis-reading and mis-booking observations of the vernier or
micrometer, so always check that the reading booked appears on the instrument.
POSITION FIXING METHODS
Sources of errors and precision of traversing
ii) Instrumental errors.
 Error in the adjustment of the theodolite. Always observe on both faces of the
theodolite when measuring horizontal and vertical angles.
 The theodolite must be properly leveled before observations are made. So that
ensure the plate bubble remains in the same position in its tube when the theodolite
is rotated through 360.
 Ensure that the theodolite is stable with the legs firmly planted in solid ground
and that the tripod adjusting screws are properly tightened.
 The theodolite must be properly centered over the station mark with an optical
plummet or plumbing rod.
 If the horizontal circle is moved between observations, the reduced angles will be
in error. This can occur for any of the following reasons.
•i) Screwing the theodolite too loosely to the tripod head.
•ii) Omitting to secure the movable head.
•iii) Omitting to clamp the lower plate.
•iv) Using the lower tangent screw instead of the upper tangent screw.
•v) Moving the orientation screw on single-axis theodolites.
POSITION FIXING METHODS
Traversing Field Work
1) Reconnaissance
i) Station position location
ii) Overall picture of the area
iii)Identify the traverse route
iv)Instrument selection
v) Identify controls station
2) Station Marking.
1) Angular Measurement.
2) Abstract of Angles ( measuring the angles back and forward)
3) Angular Misclosure. Error after determining the angle of a point twice at different interval.
• Sum of internal angles = (n-2)*180, n = number of angles.
• External angles = (n+2)*180 for closed traverse
•Calculating of whole circle bearing
•Forwarding Bearing: is the bearing measured in the clockwise direction moving towards the
point of interest.
POSITION FIXING METHODS
Considerations for field work
a) Length of traverse legs should be kept long to minimize centering errors.
b) Avoid steep slope when measuring with a tape.
c) Intervisibility between stations.
d) Station should be set above the ground.
e) Stations should be placed firm.
f) Sketch map should be drawn.
POSITION FIXING METHODS
Field Procedure for Traversing
•Consider running a traverse exercise stating for control point A to E through stations B, C, and
D as illustrated in the figure above.
•Coordinates of X, A and E, F are given
i) Compute the bearing Brg AX (Opening rays) and Brg EF (Closing rays)
ii) Setup the instrument at A and orient to a target (staff or ranging rod or reflector) held over
point X
iii)Measure horizontal angle (H.A) XAB and horizontal distance (HD) dAB.
•Forward bearing of AB = Brg AX + (H.A) XAB
•Back Bearing of BA = Brg AB +- 1800
•If Brg AB < 1800 then you add +
•If Brg AB > 1800 the you subtract -
i) Enter back bearing Brg BA in the instrument at station B and observe back to A.
ii) Swing the instrument clockwise and measure horizontal angle ABC and horizontal distance
dBC.
iii)Repeat the procedure from iii) for all the remaining stations C, D and E.
POSITION FIXING METHODS
Traverse Adjustment and Computation
Objective
 To determine Coordinates of the traverse station.
Steps in Computation
a) Establishing the Bearing of Opening and Closing rays.
b) Computation of Bearing of intermediate line.
c) Adjustment of Bearings and distances of intermediate lines (angular and linear misclosure).
d) Computation of different ▲E and ▲N.
▲E = Ssinϴ
▲N = Scosϴ
e) Checking the computation in (d) above
▲E = Elast station – Efirst station.
▲N = Nlast station – Nfirst station.
f) Adjustment of the value in (d).
POSITION FIXING METHODS
Traverse Adjustment and Computation

stn Observed Corr Crtd D ▲N ▲E Crr Crr Crrt Crrt N E Re

brg (0 ‘ “) “ Brg (m) Dcos Dsin ▲Ne ▲Ee ▲N ▲E (m) (m)
0’” ϴ ϴ
X Brg AX NX EX
A NA EA
B Brg AB AB NB EB
C Brg BC BC NC EC
D Brg CD CD ND ED
E Brg DE DE Y X NE EE
F Brg EF NF EF
∑D ∑▲N ∑▲E N E
▲N= NE-NA or (LN-FN) northing e = - (E * Di)/ ∑D
misclosure, n = - (N * Di)/ ∑D
Where di is distance between the two stations.
▲E= EE-EA or (LE-FE) easting
Proof
misclosure ED + X = EE
E = ∑▲E – ▲E, E <1m ND + Y = NE
POSITION FIXING METHODS
Example of Traverse Computation

stn Observe Cor Crtd D ▲N ▲E Crr Crr Crr Crr N E R

d brg (0 r Brg (m Scos Ssin ▲N ▲E t t (m) (m) e
‘ “) “ 0’” ) ϴ ϴ e n ▲N ▲E
71y41 307 48 307 48 37212.60 454619.84
23 23 1 2
71y12 35876.77 456341.59
6 3 1
A 351 49 AB NB EB
43
B 002 16 BC NC EC
47
C 151 01 CD ND ED
05
I. Complete
71Y1 106
the table and determine
52 DE
the coordinates of the unknown
Y X
points
35892.02 456478.31
II. Determine
30 16 the angular and linear misclosure 5 3
71Y1 098 07 098 07 35649.53 458177.81
III. Determine
49 01 the fractional
13 linear misclosure 2 3
∑D ∑▲N ∑▲E N E
POSITION FIXING METHODS
Misclosure (is the deviation from the true value.)
1)Angular Misclosure
• True value – Observed Value.
• Misclosure Per station = Misclosure/ number of occupied Stations.
• When the value is a negative then you subtract the error from the
observed bearing.
1)Linear Misclosure
• These discrepancies represent the difference on the ground between the
position of the point computed from the observations and the known
position of the point.
• The easting and northing misclosure are combined to give the linear
misclosure of the traverse, where
• Linear misclosure = (E2 + N2)
POSITION FIXING METHODS
Misclosure
• By itself the linear misclosure only gives a measure of how far the computed
position is from the actual position (accuracy of the traverse measurements).
• Another parameter that is used to provide an indication of the relative accuracy
of the traverse is the proportional linear misclosure.
• Here, the linear misclosure is divided by total distance measured, and this
figure is expressed as a ratio e.g. 1: 10000.
• In the example given, if the total distance measured along a traverse is
253.56m, and the linear misclosure is 0.01m, then the proportional linear
misclosure is
• 0.01/253.56 = 1/25356 or approximately 1: 25000
POSITION FIXING METHODS
Angular Error
•The maximum allowable error in the traverse which is given by
 = kn
•k therefore depends on the maximum allowable angular error as it relates to the least count of
the instrument.
•For a 1/5000 traverse, the value of k = 30", so  = 30"n.
•If a misclosure exists, then the figure computed is not mathematically closed.
•This can be clearly illustrated with a closed loop traverse.
•The co-ordinates of a traverse are therefore adjusted for the purpose of providing a
mathematically closed figure while at the same time yielding the best estimates for the
horizontal positions for all of the traverse stations.
POSITION FIXING METHODS
Classes of Traverse
Order Relative Accuracy Application
First 1:100,000 Primary Control Nets
Precise scientific
studies
Second
Class I 1:50,000 • Support for primary
Class II 1:20,000 control
• Control for large
scale engineering
projects.
Third
Class I 1:10,000 • Small-scale
Class II 1:5,000 engineering projects
• Large-scale Mapping
Projects
POSITION FIXING METHODS
Introduction Positioning by Intersection and Resection
Traditional methods of finding the position of unknown points using a theodolite are known as
“line-of-sight” methods. They involve sighting targets using the telescope (hence the name of
the method) and measuring angles. At some time in the surveying process at least one linear
measurement must be made; however, as long as the lines of sight make up triangles and all
angles are measured, then only one distance need be measured.
This is the basis of triangulation, a technique used to provide control surveys for national map-
making. Modern instruments such as the Total Station can measure long distances with ease,
regardless of the intervening terrain, and triangulation has largely been superseded as a control
survey technique. With the advent of modern computer techniques for the treatment of errors,
triangulation can be combined with distance measurement (every angle and every distance
measured) to provide a high degree of precision in control surveying.
This is sometimes referred to as triangulateration.
Positioning by Intersection and Resection
• Whilst the classical techniques such as triangulation, trilateration and traversing are used to
establish a network of points; single points may be fixed by intersection and/or resection. The
points located by observing directions from the points of known locations, are known as the
intersected points. When a point is established by taking observations from the point to the
points of known locations, such points are known as the resected points Some applications of
intersections and resections include
• 1)To get coordinate of points by angle measurements by theodolite, this was common before
EDM and total stations could measure distances easily.
• 2)To get coordinate (or position) of inaccessible points e.g. high point above ground with
nowhere to stand and hold prism.
• 3)Over short distances, angle measurements give very accurate coordinates.
• 4)They provide alternatives to radiation from known points which require
distancemeasurements.5)Intersection by distance using tape can give coordinate without the
need for a tripod mounted theodolite or total station instrument.
Positioning by Intersection and Resection
Introduction
• For small-scale work, however, where only a few points need to be positioned, the methods
of intersection (the basis of triangulation) and resection (the basis of traditional ship
navigation) are still useful, especially when combined with EDM distance measurement for
setting out construction works.
• Both of these methods involve the measurement of angles within triangles; however, they
differ as follows:
• Intersection requires the measurement of angles by setting up the theodolite at control
stations and taking angle readings by sighting to the unknown point(s).
• Resection requires the measurement of angles by setting up the theodolite at the unknown
point and taking angle readings by sighting to control stations.
Positioning by Intersection and Resection
Intersection
this is another method of position fixing, in this method, a point(s) is fixed or located and
coordinated using at least two existing control points. This is done by observing horizontal
angles from the control points to the point(s) to be coordinated. In this method the instrument
occupies the known points (control points) and the target held vertically over the unknown
point.
Intersection is a method of finding the coordinate of a point by measuring directions, angles,
bearings or distances to it from two or more known points (existing control stations).It has
many uses apart from coordinating new control points, e.g. curve ranging and surveying detail
in inaccessible positions including that high up on building such as church spires, flag poles
and radio aerials.
A minimum of two control stations is required for this operation, with the unknown point
visible from each of them. It is not essential that the control stations are inter-visible, but it
makes it easier if they are. Clearly, the co-ordinates of the control stations will be known
(otherwise they would not be control stations!) so that the distance between them can be
calculated. The position is illustrated in the following diagram:
Positioning by Intersection and Resection

Sightings and angles measured for intersection.

Positioning by Intersection and Resection
Principle
• The theodolite is set up at each of the stations (control points) A and B in turn. At station A,
the telescope is first sighted on B and then transited round to P, measuring the angle a.
Similarly, at B the angle b between line BA and line BP. Note that the theodolite is not set up
at the unknown point P. For this reason, intersection is used for the positioning of points over
which it is difficult or impossible to set up the theodolite, for example,
• surveying points high up on buildings, perhaps for later use as reference objects,
• measurement of the deflection of large structures (e.g. dams, bridges)
• setting out of curves.
• Because we know the co-ordinates of stations A and B, and because we know that the sum of
the internal angles in the triangle must equal 180, we can calculate the following:
Positioning by Intersection and Resection

• Further calculation allows us to find the length and bearing of each of the lines AP and BP:

Note that angle b is anticlockwise from BA to BP, hence the negative sign in the above equation.
Once we have the bearing and length of lines AP and BP then the co-ordinates of P can be
calculated from each line. These two sets of co-ordinates should correspond within the expected
degree of accuracy.
Positioning by Intersection and Resection

Note: Calculating co-ordinates from both of the control stations allows a check to be made on
the correctness of the calculations. It does not, however, give any indication of the accuracy of
the original angle readings. To improve the accuracy of the position fixing, three or more
control points should be used, forming at least two independent triangles, and any errors
in the final calculated co-ordinates dealt with appropriately.
Positioning by Intersection and Resection
Standard formulae
• The above method derives the co-ordinates of the unknown point from first principles.
Standard formulae can also be employed to save time, though great care must be taken in
adhering to sign conventions and conventions for labeling angles and stations.
• Lettering: Triangle ABP must be lettered clockwise.
• Angles: Internal angles must be used.

Example
Stations A and B have the following co-ordinates, and angles are measured from the line AB to the unknown
point P as follows:
A 3931.82E 7491.98N
B 2959.39E 7487.09N
Angles: AB to AP 44˚ 52’ 36” (clockwise)
BA to BP 284˚ 26’ 38” (clockwise)
Positioning by Intersection and Resection
Resection
Resection is also position fixing method for determining coordinates of unknown points
(position finding) in which a point to be coordinated is occupied and observations are taken to
at least three control points measuring horizontal angles with respect to known points. Its
related method to intersection as used in surveying.
In this method, the theodolite is set up over the unknown point and angle readings taken to at
least three control points. Because the theodolite is only set up once, it is considered to give a
less secure fix from the point of view of checks and accuracy.
However, it is an ideal method for the positioning of an instrument station close to a particular
piece of setting out work where it is difficult or impossible to set up a permanent control point.
Suitable reference objects (e.g. spires, beacons, aerials etc.) are chosen around the site for their
good visibility and their positions reliably established by triangulation or intersection. A
temporary point is marked by a peg or other marker in a convenient position for setting out, the
theodolite set up over it and angle readings taken on three of the reference objects. Many Total
Station instruments have software incorporated, which will perform the calculations
automatically. Setting out then continues using angles and distances calculated from co-
ordinates.
Positioning by Intersection and Resection
Resection
• Note that, although a direct calculation of the position of the theodolite is gained in this way,
it is good practice always to set the instrument up over a mark so that its position can be
checked frequently and re-established if, for instance, the instrument is taken off the tribrach
or tripod for security reasons or to avoid a rain shower.
• The three control stations will form a triangle, and there are therefore two possible
relationships between the unknown instrument station and the control triangle; either the
instrument is inside it or outside, as shown in the diagram below:

arrangement of
control triangle and
instrument station
for positioning by
resection.
Positioning by Intersection and Resection
Resection
Positioning by Intersection and Resection

The Tienstra formulae

Although co-ordinates can be calculated from first principles, as above, it is more usual to use
standard formulae, the most common of which are attributed to Tienstra. Considerable care
must be taken in assigning labels to the stations and signs to the angles, as follows:
• The control triangle ABC must be lettered clockwise.
• All angles must be measured clockwise.
Positioning by Intersection and Resection

Station labels and angles for the Tienstra formulae.

Positioning by Intersection and Resection
Positioning by Intersection and Resection
Resection
Positioning by Intersection and Resection
Example 2
Control stations have the following co-ordinates:

The theodolite is set up as station T, which is situated within the triangle WFK, the target at F is
sighted and the horizontal circle set to zero. Angle readings are taken to the other control
stations as follows:

Calculate the coordinates of point T using Tienstra formulae

Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
Introduction
• Global Positioning Systems (GPS) is a system of determining position on the
earth’s surface by the use of satellites orbiting above the earth.
• The first generation of satellite systems used in surveying was the US Navy's
TRANSIT satellites, operating on the Doppler principle. In this system, receivers
located at ground stations measured the changes in frequencies of radio signals
transmitted from satellites orbiting in polar orbits at an altitude of about 1075
km.
• In 1973, the US Department of Defense began a concept validation program to
investigate the viability of a proposed new satellite system to replace TRANSIT
and NAVSTAR GPS was born. (Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging Global
Positioning System.) The first satellite was launched in 1978.
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) CONTN
• This system is an all-weather radio navigation system which provides 3
dimensional positional information anywhere on the globe, 24 hours per day,
from any position. It provides this information faster, more accurately and at
lower cost than TRANSIT and has superseded all previous long range navigation
systems.
• Although this was designed as a navigation system, GPS is having a tremendous
impact on surveying and is being used more and more as a means of
determining position in surveying.
• GPS is a military navigation system and civilian users are tolerated. GPS is a
major navigation technology that has been modified to provide surveying
accuracy without downgrading its navigation capabilities, and without the need
for elaborate data processing and long observation periods.
DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM
• There are currently 24 satellites in 6 orbital planes (4 in each), each at a distance
of 20,200 km above the earth. The satellites have a 12 hr. orbit period and a
circular orbit at 55°E to equatorial plane, and spaced 60° apart.
• The system has worked continuously since 1991 and is capable of centimeter
accuracy. There is a 30 second fix resolution which is updated every 6.5 seconds
• There are two types of receivers, single frequency receivers and dual frequency
receivers (dual frequency is faster and more accurate).
GPS System
Constellation GPS NAVSTAR Satellites
GPS System
Determine the Distance using Radio Wave
GPS System
• The System Consists of Three Main Segments
The space segment:
• This is essentially the 24 satellites in orbit.
The user segment:
• It receives the satellite signals and calculates the positions or position
differences, obtaining real-time kinematic positions or more accurate static
position fixes.
The control segment:
• This has as its main function the control and synchronization of the highly
accurate clocks in the satellites, the determination of the satellite orbits and the
injection of such data into the satellites for re-transmission as Broadcast
Ephemeris.
GPS Segments
GPS SPACE SEGMENT: CURRENT & FUTURE CONSTELLATION
THE PRINCIPLE OF GPS
• GPS procedures for determining precise point positions consist
fundamentally in measuring distances from points of unknown
location to satellites whose positions are known at the instant the
distance is measured. From these distances, a precise position can
be determined similar to conventional resections.
• GPS is a uni-directional method of distance measurement that
depends upon accurate time measurement, facilitated by precise
synchronization of clocks in both the satellites and the receivers.
• The distance is determined by calculating the time taken for the
carrier wave to travel from the satellite to the receiver. The time is
determined by comparing the signal received by the receivers
with a constant reference signal being generated in the receiver.
THE PRINCIPLE OF GPS
Code matching concept for measuring distances from GPS receivers to satellites
RELATIVE POSITIONING OR DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONING
There are two basic methods of using GPS.
The first is to obtain a position by using just a single receiver. When this method is used, there is no check to
determine any error in the machine. The coordinates that are calculated must be accepted as being correct.
GPS
• Far more accurate and quicker results are obtained, however, if two receivers are used.
• This is known as relative or differential positioning. When using this method, one
receiver remains on a known fixed survey control point, with known coordinates,
whilst the other visits the unknown points.
• Since the errors due to clock errors and refraction errors are the same at each receiver,
the error at the known control points can be applied to the coordinates obtained from
the unknown points and thus virtually eliminated, producing more accurate results.
ADVANTAGES OF GPS

1. Co-ordinates can be brought into remote areas where the cost of conventional
methods would be prohibitive.
2. The system can be used 24 hours a day regardless of weather conditions.
3. Intervisibility between points is not necessary. Therefore no expensive and
time-consuming line clearing is required.
4. The method is relatively quick and accurate and field techniques are easy to
master.
DISADVANTAGES OF GPS

1. The full differential positioning equipment is still reasonably expensive,

although prices are reducing all the time.
2. In heavily forested areas, GPS surveys are not as effective since satellite visibility
is inhibited.
3. The GPS system is controlled and owned by the US Department of Defense and
thus the ultimate control of the whole system lies with them.