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KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUBJECT: ENGINEERINHG SURVEY I

SUBJECT CODE: CIEG 202
YEAR: SECOND
SEMESTER: THIRD
DATE: 10 November 2022

Chapter 6: Level survey

Raju Bhele

11/10/2022 ENGINEERING SURVEY I CIEG 202

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1. Introduction
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 Levelling is the art of determining the relative altitude of points or height difference
between points on or beneath the surface of earth with reference to some reference
plane.
 It deals with the measurements in vertical plane.
 It is used for preparing a topographic map, contour map, vertical section (cross and L-
section) and layout maps as well as establishing precise control points.

Objective of levelling
1. To find the elevation of given points with respect to a given or assumed datum.
2. To establish the points on the ground at a given elevation with respect to given or
assumed datum.

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Some common terms

 Level Surface: A level surface is any surface parallel to the
mean spherical surface of the earth. It is a curved surface,
which at each point is perpendicular to the direction of gravity
at that point. Every point on a level surface is equidistant from
the centre of the earth
 Level Line: A line lying on the level surface. It is therefore
normal to plumb line.
 Horizontal Plane: A plane tangential to the plane surface at a
given points is the horizontal plane at that point. It is also
perpendicular to the plumb line
 Horizontal Line: A straight line tangential to the level line at
a points.
 Vertical Line: A line normal to the level line at a point.
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Defined by the plumb line
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 Datum: Surface to which the elevation are

referred. Commonly mean sea level is referred
but any other datum can be referred if the
relative elevation are required
 Elevation: Vertical distance above or below an
assumed datum and the considered point on or
near the earth surface
 Vertical Angle: An angle between two
intersecting lines in a vertical plane.
 Bench Mark: It is a relatively permanent
point of reference whose elevation with
respect to some assumed datum is known. It is
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used as a starting point of levelling.
2. Method of Levelling
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 Barometric levelling: Difference in level between two points is proportional to the

difference in atmospheric pressures at these points
 Since the atmospheric pressure varies in the course of the day, even in the course of
an hour, the method is relatively inaccurate and is used only during reconnaissance
survey.
 Trigonometric levelling (Indirect levelling): The process of levelling in which the points
are computed from the vertical angles and horizontal distances measured in the field.
 Spirit levelling (Direct levelling): The process of levelling where the vertical distances is
used to determine the relative difference in elevation between two adjacent points.
 The vertical distance is measured by observing graduated rods placed on the points.
This method is also known as direct levelling.
 It is the most precise method of determining elevations and most commonly used by
engineers.
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3. Instruments
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Level
Levelling staff 11/10/2022
Tripod
3.1. Types of level
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1. Dumpy level
2. Wye level
3. Reversible level
4. Tilting level
5. Auto level

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Dumpy level
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Levelling bubble
 In dumpy level, the telescope is
fixed to the spindle, long bubble
tube is attached to the top of the Telescope

telescope.
Focusing screw
 In the dumpy level survey, staff
reading need to be adjusted as
inverted level staff reading is Slow motion screw
(Tangent screw)
seen in the eyepiece Foot plate (Trivet)

 The line of sight is manually Upper parallel plate

adjusted in the dumpy level. (Tribarch)

Foot screw
 It is difficult to make an accurate
measurement with the dumpy level Dumpy level
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wye level
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 In wye level, the telescope rests on wye supports

which can be raised and rotated . Wye supports

 The Wye support consists of curved clips. If the clips

are raised, the telescope can be rotated in the Wyes,
or removed and turned end for end.
 When the clips are fastened, the telescope is held Focusing screw

from turning about its axis by a lug on one of the Bubble tube

clips Tangent screw

 In Wye level, the adjustments can be tested with

Foot screw
greater rapidity and ease compared to dumpy level.

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wye level
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Reversible Level
 Combines the feature of both dumpy level and wye level.

 Telescope placed in sockets which is connected to the spindle through a stage

 Once the telescope is pushed into sockets and the screw tightened, the level acts as
dumpy level.
 The telescope can be taken out and reversed end for end

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Tilting level
 In case of dumpy and wye level, the line of sight is perpendicular to the vertical axis.
Once the instrument is levelled, the line of sight becomes horizontal and the vertical axis
becomes truly vertical.
 In case of tilting level, the telescope can be moved in vertical plane i.e. the line of sight

can be titled without tilting the vertical axis.

 This feature helps in quick levelling.

 The machine is mainly designed

for precise levelling work.

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Auto level
 It is like dumpy level where the telescope is fixed to its supports.
 A compensator is provided inside the telescope which helps the instrument to automatically
level
 The compensator of an automatic level uses gravity to suspend or balance a portion of the instrument
optics (a swinging prism inside the level adjusts to compensate for imperfections in the tripod
levelling.)
 In this way, the optical path of light through the instrument is compensated for the vertical axis error
before reaching the user’s eye.

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3.2 Levelling Staff
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 Straight rectangular rod having graduations

 Foot of the staff represents 0 reading

 Divided into two classes:

(i) self-reading staff

(ii) target staff
 A self reading staff is the one which can be read directly

by the instrument man through the telescope

 A target staff has a moving target against which the

reading is taken. It is used for when the readings of staff

cannot be read directly as a result of being too far. 11/10/2022
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 Self reading staff are of three forms:

 Solid staff: Generally a single wood piece of length 3 meters. The smallest
division is of 5 mm
 Folding staff: Usually 10 ft (3 meters) long having a hinge at the middle of its
length. When not in use the staff can be folded which makes is convenient to
carry.
 Telescopic staff: It is usually 5 meters long. The top part is usually 1.5 meters
long which slides into middle part of 1.5 meters length which slides into bottom
part of 2 meters length

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 Target staff
 It has a sliding target equipped with Vernier. It consists

of two sliding lengths, the lower of generally 7 ft and the

upper of 6 ft.
Merits of self reading and target staff
1. With the self-reading staff, readings can be taken

quicker than with the target staff

2. The reading of target staff can be taken with greater

fineness
3. In case of target staff, the duties of a target staff-man are

as important as those of the leveler and required trained

man. 11/10/2022
3. Principle of levelling
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 The principle of leveling is making a horizontal line of sight and finding the vertical
distances of the points above or below the line of sight.
 The horizontal line of sight is provided with a level and a graduated leveling staff is
used for measuring the height of the line of sight above the staff station.

Importance
 Laying of pipe works for allowing smooth transport of liquid

 It is also useful in construction of roads, to calculate CUT and FILL in a road

project, deciding slope on side for draining purpose
 Computation of exactly height from the sea level

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 The difference in elevation between two points is equal to the difference in staff readings taken at that
points.
 Here, O is the center of the earth and A and A’ are the points on the earth surface whose difference in
elevation is to be found out.
 C is the position of level, co is the plumb line, BB’ be the line of sight and AB & A’B’ are staff
reading at A and A’ respectively.
Then, B B’
OA +AB =OA’’+A’’A’+A’B’ C
AB – A’B’ = A”A’
# It should be noted that the distance A’
between the instrument position and
A”
staff position should be kept equal to A
cancel the collimation error, curvature
error and refraction error.

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4. Special (Technical ) terms used in levelling
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1. Instrument station
2. Station
3. Height of instrument (HI)
4. Back sight (BS)
5. Fore sight (FS)
6. Intermediate sight (IS)
7. Change point (CP) or turning point(TP)

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 Instrument station. The point where instrument is set up for observations, is called
instrument station.
 Station. The point where levelling staff is held, is called station. It is the point
whose elevation is to be determined or the point that is to be established at a given
elevation.
 Height of instrument. (H.I.) The elevation of the line of sight with respect to the
assumed datum, is known as height of instrument. In levelling it does not mean the
height

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Back sight. (B.S.)

 The first sight taken on a levelling staff held at point of known elevation, is
called back sight.
 It ascertains the amount by which the line of sight is above or below the elevation of

the point.
 Back sight enables the surveyor to obtain the height of line of collimation of the
instrument

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Fore sight. (F.S.)

 The sight taken on a levelling staff held at a point of unknown elevation to
ascertain the amount by which the point is above or below the line of sight, is called
a fore sight.
 Fore sight enables the surveyor to obtain the elevation of the point.

 It is also generally known as minus sight as the foresight reading is always

subtracted from the height of the instrument (except when the staff is held inverted)
to obtain the elevation.

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Change point.
 The point on which both the fore sight and back sight, are taken during the operation of
levelling, is called a change point.
 Two sights are taken from two different instrument stations, a fore sight to ascertain the elevation of
the point while a back sight is taken on the same point to establish the height of the instrument of the
new setting of the level.
 The change point is always selected on a relatively permanent point.

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Intermediate sight.
 The fore sight taken on a levelling staff held at a point between two turning points,
to determine the elevation of that point, is known as intermediate sight.
 It may be noted that for one setting of a level, there will be only a back sight

and a fore sight but there can be a number of intermediate sights.

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5. Adjustment of level
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1. Temporary adjustment
2. Permanent adjustment

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4.1 Temporary adjustment
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 The adjustments which are made at every setting of instrument of level are known
as temporary adjustments.
 These are
1. Setting up the level
2. Levelling up
3. Elimination of parallax

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4.1.1Setting up the level
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 This operation includes fixing the instrument

on the tripod and also levelling the
instrument approximately by leg adjustment.
 To achieve this, release the clamp, hold the
instrument in the right hand and fix it on the
tripod by turning round the levelling head
with the left hand.
 The tripod legs are so adjusted that the
telescope is at a convenient height and the
tribarch is approximately levelled.
 Modern levels are provided with a small
circular bubble on the tribarch for achieving
approximate levelling of the instrument.

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4.1.2 Levelling up
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 After setting up the instrument, accurate levelling is done using foot screws.
 The objective of levelling is to make the vertical axis of the level truly vertical.
 There are two methods of levelling
1. Method 1 (Levelling with three screw head)
2. Method 2 (Levelling with four screw head)

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a. Levelling with three screw head
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 The level tube is brought parallel to any two of the foot

screws, by rotating the upper part of the instrument.
 The bubble is brought to the centre of the level tube by
rotating both the foot screws either inward or outward.
(The bubble moves in the same direction as the left
thumb.)
 The level tube is then brought over the third foot screw
again by rotating the upper part of the instrument.
 The bubble is then again brought to the centre of the
level tube by rotating the third foot screw either inward
or outward.
 Repeat above steps till the bubble is at center in both
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position
b. Levelling with a Four screw head
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 Loosen the clamp and turn the upper plate till the
longitudinal axis of the plate level, is approximately parallel
to the line joining any two diagonally opposite foot screws
such as B and D as in fig a
 Bring the bubble central exactly in the same manner as
described in step (2) of levelling up with three foot screws.
 Turn the upper plate through 90° until the plate level axis is
parallel to the other two diagonally opposite screws i.e. A
and C as in fig b
 Make the bubble central as explained earlier.
 Repeat the above steps till the bubble remains central in both
the positions.
 Turn the instrument through 180° to check the adjustment in
the same way as in the case of three screw method.
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4.1.3 Elimination of parallax
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 If the image formed by the objective do not lie on the plane of cross hair, any
movement of eye causes an apparent movement of image with respect to cross hair,
this shift of image is called parallax .
 This parallax can be eliminated in two steps.
1. Focusing the eye piece for distinct vision of cross hair
2. Focusing the objective for clear vision of object.

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Focusing the eye-piece. Following steps are involved :

(i) Direct the telescope either towards the sky or hold a sheet of white paper in front of
the objective.
(ii) Move the eye piece in or out till the cross hairs appear distinct.

Focusing the objective. Following steps are involved :

(i) Direct the telescope towards the levelling staff.
(ii) Turn the focusing screw till the image appears clear and sharp.
(iii) The image so formed must be in the plane of cross hairs.

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4.2 Permanent adjustment of level
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 When the relations between fundamental lines of level are disturbed due to
mishandling of instrument or frequent use of level, permanent adjustment of level
should be done.
 Fundamental lines of level are
1. The axis of bubble tube
2. The vertical axis
3. The axis of telescope
4. The line of collimation

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 Line of sight: the line passing through the optical center of

objective, transverse eye piece and entering the eye is known
as line of sight.
 Line of collimation: The line passing through the optical
center of objective and the point of cross hair stretches in
front of eye pieces and its continuation
 Optical center of a lens: The point in a lens through which ray
pass without any lateral displacement
 Axis of telescope: The line joining the optical center of
objective lens and the center of the eye piece
 Instrument station: The point where instrument is set up for
observation.
 Station: The point where levelling staff is held
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Desired relationship between these lines
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 The line of collimation should be parallel to axis of bubble tube.

 The axis of telescope and line of collimation should coincide.

 The axis of bubble tube should be perpendicular to the vertical axis.

# to check the first relation, we can apply Two Peg Test

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Permanent adjustment of levels
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 Adjustment of line of collimation
 Line of collimation is the line of sight of the levelling machine. It is the imaginary line passing through the intersection of
cross hair diaphragm and the center of objective line to the aim (target).
 In correct orientation, the line of collimation of the telescope should be parallel to the axis of the bubble tube if not
adjustment is required. Adjustment is done by two-peg test
Method A
• Choose 2 points on a fairly level ground at a distance of about 100 or 120 meters.
Set the instrument at point C very near to point A.
• The reading of the staff at A then gives the true rod reading (i.e. the
height of instrument with certain precision), say ha.
• Take the staff reading at B, say hb.
• The difference in elevation is h = ha - hb (+ve if A is lower than B)
• Repeat the process with the instrument near to point B with staff reading at B say hb'
The reading at A is then ha`. The difference of elevation is h' = ha'- hb'
• If h = h`, the instrument is in adjustment.
ℎ+ℎ`
• Else, determine the correct difference in elevation as H = (+ve if A is lower than B and vice versa)
2
Considering the instrument is in adjustment when at position D, the correct reading in staff at A should be = ℎ𝑏 ` + 𝐻 (If the computed
value of H is positive, the point of staff B is higher than A. If it is negative, B is lower than A.)
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• Now sighting the staff A, adjust the diaphragm of the telescope until the instruments reads the correct value. The line of sight will then be
perfectly horizontal.
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 The following observations were made during the testing of a dumpy level:

Distance of AB = 150 m. Is the instrument in adjustment? To what reading should the line of collimation be
adjusted when the instrument was at B? If R.L. of A = 432.052 m, what should be the R.L. of B?
 Solution

 Apparent difference in elevation when instrument at A (h1) = 2.244 – 1.702 = 0.542 (fall i.e. B is lower)
 Apparent difference in elevation when instrument at B (h2) = 3.044 – 2.146 = 0.898
ℎ +ℎ
 True elevation difference is thus (H) = 1 2 2 = 0.72
 The collimation line is inclined downward by 0.898 – 0.72 = 0.178 in 150 m
 When the instrument is at B, the staff reading on A should be 3.044 – 0.72 = 2.324 (since . B is lower)
 The R.L at B is thus, 432.052 – 0.72 = 431.332 m

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Method B
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 Drive two pegs A and B at a distance of (D) meters say 60 to 100 meters on a fairly level ground. Drive another peg at O exactly midway between A
and B
 Set up and level the instrument at O and take the staff readings on A and B. The bubble must be in the center while the readings are being taken. Let
the staff readings on A and B, be a and b respectively. The difference in elevation given by this orientation is the true difference in elevation since the
instrument is in midpoint of A and B. 𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒂 − 𝒃 (–ve denotes fall i.e. B is at lower position than A)
 Shift the level and set it up a point O1, d meters away from A (or B) and along the same line BA . Level the instrument accurately and take staff readings
on A and B with the bubble central. Let the readings be a1 and b1 respectively. (The level may also be set up at a point between A and B, d meters
away from A or B)
 If the difference between a1 and b1 is the same as true difference, the instrument is in adjustment.
 Else, actual reading at staff at B can be found (assuming instrument positioned at A is in adjustment) as
𝑏2 = 𝑎1 + |𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒|. (Take +ve sign if B is lower (i.e. fall) else take –ve sign)
b1 −b2
 The error in elevation per unit distance is then 𝑒 = , when e is +ve (b1 is greater than b2, the line of collimation is inclined upward and vice versa
D
 The correction to the reading is then, for peg A: 𝑪𝒏 = 𝒅 ∗ 𝒆
 For peg B: 𝑪𝒇 = 𝒅 + 𝑫 ∗ 𝒆
 The correct reading at A is then = 𝒂𝟏 ± 𝑪𝒏 Take + if collimation line is inclined downward and vice versa
 The correct reading at B is then = 𝒃𝟏 ± 𝑪𝒇
 The correction to the instrument can be done by adjusting the diaphragm until it reads the correct reading at staff B
Examples
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 A dumpy level was set up at C exactly midway between two pegs A and B 100 meters apart.
The readings on the staff when held on the pegs A and B were 2.250 and 2.025 respectively.
The instrument was then moved and set up at a point D on the line BA produced, and 20
meters from A. The respective staff reading on A and B were 1.875 and 1.670. Calculate the
staff readings on A and B to give a horizontal line of sight.
 Solution
 True elevation difference = 2.250 – 2.025 = 0.225 (rise i.e. B is at higher location)
 Apparent difference = 1.875 – 1.670 = 0.205 (adjustment required)
 With reference to location A, the reading at B should be = 1.875 – 0.225 = 1.65
1.67−1.65 0.02
 The error in reading per unit distance is 𝑒 = = (line of collimation is inclined upward)
100 100
0.02
 Correction at reading A is: 20 ∗ = 0.004
100
0.02
 Correction at reading B is: 120 ∗ = 0.024
100
 Correct reading at A is = 1.875 − 0.004 = 1.871 (subtraction because the collimation line inclined
upward)
 Correct reading at B is = 1.67 − 0.024 = 1.646
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 IN a two peg test of a dumpy level, the following readings were taken:

Is the line of collimation inclined upward or downward and by how much? With the instrument of A, what
should be the staff reading on B in order to place the line of collimation truly horizontal?
 Solution
 True elevation difference = 1.682 – 1.320 = 0.362 (rise i.e. A is at lower position)
 Apparent elevation difference = 1.528 – 1.178 = 0.350
 Since the difference in elevation is lesser for apparent reading, the line of collimation is higher than required
and thus inclined upward by an amount of 0.362 − 0.350 = 0.012 for 100 meters
 The true reading of staff B should thus be 1.178 – 0.012 = 1.166 (alternatively 1.528 – 0.362 = 1.166)

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Various types of levelling
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1. Spirit levelling (Direct levelling)

2. Trigonometrical levelling
3. Barometric levelling
4. Photogrametric levelling

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1. Spirit levelling
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 It is direct method of levelling.

 It is the method of determining the relative difference in elevation between two
adjacent points.
 In this levelling, a horizontal line of sight tangent to the level surface at any point is
readily established by means of spirit level.
 Spirit level and a sighting device (telescope) are combined and vertical distances are
measured by observing to levelling staff placed on the points.
 It is the most precise method of determining elevations

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Types of spirit levelling
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1. Simple levelling
2. Differential levelling
3. Profile levelling
4. Cross sectioning
5. Reciprocal levelling

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a. Simple levelling
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• When the difference of level between two points is determined by setting the leveling
instrument midway between two points , the process is called simple leveling.
• In this , only one instrument setting is done.

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b. Differential levelling
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 The object of which is to determine the difference in elevation of two points either
too far apart or obstructed by an intervening ground.
 In this method, the level is set up at number of points and the difference in elevation
of successive points is determined as in simple levelling.
 When differential levelling is done in order to connect a benchmark to the starting
point of any project, it is called fly levelling.

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c. Profile levelling
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 Profile leveling is a method of surveying that has been carried out along the central line of a
track on which engineering work is to be constructed / laid.
 Objective of this method is to determine the elevation of the points at measured interval
along the given line in order to obtain the profile of the ground surface along that line.
 The route along which a profile is run may be single straight line, as in case of a short
sidewalk; a broken line, as in the case of a transmission line or sewer; or a series of straight
lines connected by curves, as in case of a railway, highway or canal.
 If we plot the elevation of points as ordinates and horizontal distances as abscissa, then the
line joining the ends of the ordinates gives the profile of the ground.
 It is also called longitudinal levelling.
 The principal purpose of profile levelling is to provide data from which the depth of fill or
cut required to bring the existing surface up to, or down to, the grade elevation required for
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the alignment can be determined
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Procedure for profile levelling
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 In carrying out profile leveling, a level is placed at a convenient location (say I1) not
necessarily along the line of observation .
 The instrument is to be positioned in such a way that first backsight can be taken
clearly on a B.M.
 Then, observations are taken at regular intervals (say at 1, 2, 3, 4) along the central
line and foresight to a properly selected turning point (say TP1).
 The instrument is then re-positioned to some other convenient location (say I2).
 After proper adjustment of the instrument, observations are started from TP1 and
then at regular intervals (say at 5, 6 etc) terminating at another turning point, say
TP2.
 Staff readings are also taken at salient points where marked changes in slope occur,
such as that at X. 11/10/2022
d. Cross sectioning
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 Since the plotted profile cannot exhibit any particulars as to the character of the
ground on either side of the centerline, it does not convey sufficient information for
the complete design of works such as road, canal, railway etc.
 So sufficient information is conveniently obtained by means of cross sections, which
are sections taken at right angles to the center line and of sufficient length to
embrace the limits of the work on either side of the centerline.
 Cross-sectional drawings are particularly important for estimating the earthwork
volumes needed to construct a roadway; they show the existing ground elevations,
the proposed cut or fill side slopes.

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Procedure for cross sectioning
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e. Reciprocal levelling
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 Sometimes in leveling across topographic features such as rivers, lakes

etc., it is difficult or impossible to keep the instrument midway
between the stations. At that time Reciprocal leveling is done to find
out the level difference between that points.
 Suppose A and B are two points on an opposite bank of a river. The
level is set up very near A and after proper temporary adjustment staff
reading are taken at A and B. suppose reading a1 and b1.
 Since A is near to instrument, there is no error due to curvature ,
refraction and collimation but there will be an error ‘e’ in staff reading
on B as it is far from instrument
 level is shifted and set up very near B and after proper adjustment,
staff reading is taken as A and B. Suppose the reading are a2 and b2.

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Let,
h= true difference of level between A and B
e= combine error due to curvature, refraction and collimation

First case: First case

Correct staff reading A=a1

Correct staff reading B=b1 – e
True difference of level between A and B
h= a1 – (b1-e) ………………………………………..eq.1
Second case:
Correct staff reading B=b2
staff reading a=a2 – e Second case:
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True difference of level between A and B

h= (a2 - e) – b2 ……………………………………………………..eq.2
from (1) and (2)
2h= a1 – (b1-e) + (a2 - e) – b2
2h= a1 – b1 + e + a2 – e – b2
2h= (a1 – b1) + (a2 – b2)
h= [(a1 – b1) + (a2 – b2)] / 2
So difference in level between A and B is equal to the mean of the two apparent
differences in level taken by reciprocal observations.

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 The combined error can be obtained by equating the Eqns. 1 and 2

a1 – b1+ e = a2 - e – b2
or, 2e = a2-b2-a1+b1

the combined error is equal to the half of the difference of the apparent differences of
level.

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59

2. Trigonometrical levelling
It is the indirect method of levelling in which R.L of point is determined by measuring
vertical angle and horizontal distance to the object by using Theodolite.
3. Barometric levelling
In this levelling, differences in height are determined by measuring the difference in
atmospheric pressure at various points.
4. Photogrametric levelling
In this type of surveying a pair of photographs taken from the air station are used to
find the height difference of different points with the help of stereoscope. This type of
surveying is used for preparing the topographical map of large area.

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Booking and reduction of levels
60

1. Rise and Fall method

2. Height of collimation method

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1. Rise and Fall method
61

 In this method, the difference of level between two consecutive points for each setting of the
instrument, is obtained by comparing their staff readings.
 The difference between their staff readings indicates a rise if the back staff reading is more than the
fore sight and a fall if it is less than the fore sight.
 The rise and fall worked out for all the points give the vertical distance of each point relative to the
preceding one.
 If the R.L. of the back staff point is known, then R.L. of the following point may be obtained by
adding its rise or subtracting its fall from the R.L. of preceding point as the case may be

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 Arithmetic checks. The difference between the sum of the back sights
and the sum of the fore sights should be equal to the difference of the
sum of rises and the sum of falls and should also be equal to the
difference between the R.L. of the last point and that of the first point

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63
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks
1 1.255 154.375 B.M 1
2 1.100 0.155 154.530
3 0.130 2.095 0.995 153.535 T.P. 1
4 5.765 0.245 0.115 153.420 T.P. 2
5 0.345 5.42 158.840 B.M 2
∑ 7.15 2.685 5.575 1.11

∑B.S. = ∑F.S. = 4.465

∑Rise - ∑Fall = 4.465
Last R.L. – First R.L. = 4.465

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65

 Height of Instrument method

 In this method, the height of the instrument (H.I.) is calculated for each setting of the instrument.
 The elevation of starting point is known known as Bench Mark (B.M.)
 For the first setup, the H.I. is obtained by adding the reading of the staff with the B.M. elevation
 In the figure, the B.M is 154.375 m. The instrument is setup at position A. The staff reading on position 1 is 1.255. Since this
is the first reading, this is the Back Sight (B.S.)
 The height of instrument is obtained as 𝐻. 𝐼 = 𝐵. 𝑀 + 𝐵. 𝑆 = 154.375 + 1.255 = 155.630 𝑚
 The staff reading of point 2 is the Intermediate Station (I.S.). The elevation of point 2 is found by subtracting the staff
reading to the H.I i.e. 𝑅. 𝐿.2 = 𝐻. 𝐼 − 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑡 2 = 155.630 − 1.100 = 154.530 𝑚
 The reading at staff 3 is 2.095 which is also the Fore Sight (F.S.) since this is the last reading that can be taken with
instrument at position A. Thus the elevation of the point is 155.630 − 2.095 = 153.535
 The instrument is then moved to position B without moving the staff at station 3. The reading at staff at 3 with instrument at B
then gives the B.S.
 The new H.I of the instrument is then found with reference to the R.L of station 3 which is
𝑅. 𝐿3 + 𝐵. 𝑆3 = 153.535 + 0.130 = 153.665
 This process is repeated until the R.L of point 5 is known
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Numerical sample
66
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks
1 1.255 155.630 154.375 B.M 1
2 1.100 155.630 154.530
3 0.130 2.095 153.665 153.535 T.P. 1
4 5.765 0.245 159.185 153.420 T.P. 2
5 0.345 159.185 158.840 B.M 2

Check:
∑B.S. - ∑F.S. = Last R.L – First R.L.
7.15 – 2.685 = 158.840 – 154.375
4.465 = 4.465

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67

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NUMERICALS
68

 The following series of readings Station BS FS Rise Fall HI RL Remarks

of back sight and fore sight was 1 1.235 101.235 100 BM
taken in a fly levelling. The first 2 2.345 1.396 0.161 102.184 99.839 TP1
reading was taken on a point of 3 2.148 1.986 0.359 102.346 100.198 TP2
RL 100.000m. Draw a page of 4 0.325 0.735 1.413 101.936 101.611 TP3
levelling book and enter the 5 1.465 2.568 2.243 100.833 99.366 TP4
readings. Find RL of all points 6 1.356 2.435 0.97 99.754 98.396 TP5
and apply the check. 7 1.985 0.768 0.588 100.971 98.986 TP6
1.235,1.396,2.345,1.986,2.148, 8 2.655 0.67 98.316
0.735,0.325,2.568,1.465,2.435,
∑ 10.859 12.543 2.36 4.044
1.356, 0.768,1.985,2.655.

∑B.S. - ∑F.S. = Last R.L – First R.L=∑Rise - ∑Fall

-1.684 = -1.684 = -1.684

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Numericals
69

 The following readings were Station BS IS FS Rise Fall HI RL Remarks

taken with the help of level. 1 1.904 1201.904 1200 BM
2 2.653 0.749 1201.904 1199.251
1.904,2.653,3.906,4.026,1.964,
3 3.906 1.253 1201.904 1197.998
1.702,1.592,1.261,2.542,2.006,
4 1.964 4.026 0.12 1199.842 1197.878 TP1
3.145m. The instrument was
5 1.702 0.262 1199.842 1198.14
shifted after fourth and seventh 6 1.261 1.592 0.11 1199.511 1198.25 TP2
readings. The first reading was 7 2.542 1.281 1199.511 1196.969
taken on the BM of RL1200m. 8 2.006 0.536 1199.511 1197.505
Enter the above readiongs on 9 3.145 1.139 1199.511 1196.366
the level book and calculate the 5.129 12.809 8.763 0.908 4.542
Rls of all points.
∑B.S. - ∑F.S. = Last R.L – First R.L=∑Rise - ∑Fall
-3.634 = -3.634 = -3.634
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70

 The following consecutive reading Remark

Station Chainage BS IS FS Rise Fall HI RL s
were taken with a level and staff on 1 0+000 0.385 208.51 208.125 BM
continuously sloping ground with 2 0+020 1.03 0.645 208.51 207.48
common interval of 20m.
3 0+040 1.925 0.895 208.51 206.585
0.385,1.030,1.925,2.825,3.730,4.6
4 0+060 2.825 0.9 208.51 205.685
85,0.625,2.005,3.110,4.485.
5 0+080 3.73 0.905 208.51 204.78
The RL of first point was 208.125m.
6 0+100 0.625 4.685 0.955 204.45 203.825 TP1
Rule out the page of level book,
7 0+120 2.005 1.38 204.45 202.445
enter all the above readings.
8 0+140 3.11 1.105 204.45 201.34
Calculate the RL of all points by H.I
method and rise and fall method. 9 0+160 4.485 1.375 204.45 199.965

Also find the gradient between the ∑ 1.01 14.625 9.17 0 8.16
first and last points.
Gradient = difference elevation/distance ∑B.S. - ∑F.S. = Last R.L – First R.L=∑Rise - ∑Fall
= ……….(Give answer in 1: n term) -8.16 = -8.16 = -8.16
Find the missing reading in given field book
71

1.800

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Find out missing data
72

224.960
…..

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Curvature and Refraction
73

 The level line deviates from the horizontal line due to the curvature of the earth.
 Similarly, the line of sight also deviates from the horizontal due to refraction of light.
 Necessary correction is required for both when levelling in long distances.
Curvature:
 The line of sight is above the level line
 The correction due to curvature is thus negative which is applied to the staff reading
 From the figure,
𝑂𝐶 2 = 𝑂𝐴2 + 𝐴𝐶 2 , ∠𝐶𝐴𝑂 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 900
 Let, BC = CC = correction for curvature
 AB = d = horizontal distance between A and B
 AO = R = radius of the earth in the same unit as that of d
∴ 𝑅 + 𝐶𝐶 2 = 𝑅 2 + 𝑑 2
𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟐
 Solving the above equation: 𝑪𝑪 = ≅ 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 2𝑅
𝟐𝑹+𝑪𝑪 𝟐𝑹

 If the radius of earth is taken equal to 6370 km and d is input in kilometers, the we get, CC = 0.07849 d2 meters
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Refraction:
 The correction for refraction is positive applied to the staff reading.

 Solving in the same manner as before, we get,

𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝑪𝒓 = 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑚
𝟕 𝟐𝑹

 The combined correction due to curvature and refraction is thus:

𝒅𝟐 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝟔 𝒅𝟐
𝑪= − = 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝟐𝑹 𝟕 𝟐𝑹 𝟕 𝟐𝑹
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟖 𝒅𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔, 𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒎
 using the above relation, we can get the distance to visible horizon as:
𝑪
𝒅= 𝒌𝒎 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟓𝟓𝟑 𝑪 𝒌𝒎, 𝐶 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟖
where, P is the point of observation, C is the height (of instrument) and A is the point in the horizon at a distance d from P.
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1. Find the correction for curvature and for refraction for a distance of (a) 1200 meters, (b) 2.48 km
Solution
 Correction for curvature (CC ) = 0.07849 𝑑2 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 0.07849 ∗ 1.22 = 0.113 𝑚
1 1
 Correction for refraction (Cr ) = 𝐶𝐶 = ∗ 0.113 = 0.016 𝑚
7 7

 Correction for curvature (CC ) = 0.07849 𝑑2 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 0.07849 ∗ 2.482 = 0.483 𝑚

1
 Correction for refraction (Cr ) = 𝐶𝐶 = 1/7 ∗ 0.483 = 0.069 𝑚
7
2. An observer standing on the top deck of a ship just sees a light house. The top of the light house is 42 meters above the sea
level and the height of the observer’s eye is 6 meters above the sea level. Find the distance of the observer from the light-
house.
Solution
 Let A be the position of the top of light house and B be the position of observer’s eye.
Let AB be tangential to water surface at ). Then,
 The distance d1 and d2 is given by:
𝑑1 = 3.8553 𝐶 𝑘𝑚 = 3.8553 42 = 24.985 𝑘𝑚
𝑑2 = 3.8553 6 = 9.444 𝑘𝑚
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 = 34.429 𝑘𝑚

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76

The following notes refer to reciprocal levels taken with one level:
Find (a) true R.L. of Q, (b) combined correction for Instrument at Staff reading on Remarks
curvature and refraction, and (c) the angular error in
the collimation adjustment of the instrument. P Q
Solution P 1.824 2.748 Distance between P and Q is 1010
 When at P, the apparent difference is: Q 0.928 1.606 R.L. of P is 126.386 m
d1 = 2.748 – 1.824 = 0.924 (P is higher)
 When at Q, the apparent difference is: d2 = 1.606 – 0.928 = 0.678 (P is higher)
 True difference in elevation: (0.924+0.678)/2 = 0.801 m
 R.L of Q: 126.386 - 0.801 = 125.585 m
B) Combined correction: C = 0.06728*1.0102 = 0.069 m (negative correction)
 Total error = error due to refraction and curvature + error due to collimation
C) When at P, the error in reading is
 = Apparent difference- true difference = 0.924 – 0.081 = 0.123
 Error due to collimation = 0.123 – 0.069 = 0.054 (inclined upward)
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0.054
 Angular error is thus: 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = → 𝛼 = 11``
1010
77

 Precise levelling
 Precise levelling is used for establishing bench marks with greater accuracy at widely distributed
points.
 The precise level differs from ordinary levelling in the following points:
 High grade levels and stadia rods are used in precise levelling
 Length of sight is limited to 100 m in length
 Rod readings are taken against the three horizontal hairs of the diaphragm
 Backsight and foresight distances are precisely kept equal, the distances being calculated from stadia hair
readings.
 Two rodmen are employed and backsight and foresight are taken in quick successions
 The adjustments of the precise level are tested daily and the correction applied to the rod readings. The
rod is standardized frequently.
 A high grade level equipment is used along with an invar precision levelling staff.
 Invar has thermal expansion of almost zero which is why it is preferred for precision levelling.

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 Three principle sources of error

A. Instrumental
a. Error due to imperfect adjustment C. Personal
i. Mistakes in manipulation
b. Error due to sluggish bubble
ii. Mistake in rod handling
c. Rod not of standard length iii. Errors in sighting
d. Error due to defective joint iv. Mistakes in reading the rod
B. Natural v. Mistakes in recording and computing
a. Earth’s curvature
b. Atmospheric refraction
c. Variations in temperature
d. Settlement of tripod or turning points
e. Wind vibrations

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