CHAPTER TWO

TRANSFORMERS

INTRODUCTION

The transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical
circuit to another electrical circuit through the medium of magnetic field and without
a change in the frequency.

The electric circuit which receives energy from the supply mains is called primary winding
and the other circuit which delivers electrical energy to the load is called secondary winding.
Actually the transformer is an electric energy conversion device, since the energy
received by the primary is converted to useful electrical energy in the other circuits
(secondary winding circuit).
If the secondary winding has more turns than the primary winding, then the secondary voltage is higher than the
primary voltage and the transformer is called a step-up transformer. When the secondary winding has less turns
than the primary windings then the secondary voltage is lower than the primary voltage and the transformer is called
step down transformer.

Note that a step-up transformer can be used as a step-down transformer, in which the secondary of step-up
transformer becomes the primary of the step-down transformer. Actually a transformer can be termed a step-up or
step-down transformer only after it has been put into service.
The most important tasks performed by transformers are:-
i) Changing voltage and current levels in electrical power systems
ii) Matching source and load impedances for maximum power transfer in electronic and
control circuit and
iii) Electrical isolation (isolating one circuit from another )
Transformers are used extensively in ac power systems. AC electrical power can be generated at
one central location, its voltage stepped up for transmission over long distances at very low losses
and its voltage stepped down again for final use.

2.2. CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER

There are basically two types of transformer, the core-type and the shell-type. The magnetic core
is a stock of thin silicon-steel laminations about 0.35mm thick for 50Hz transformers.

In order to reduce the eddy current losses, these laminations are insulated from one another by
thin layer of varnish. In the core-type, the windings surround a considerable part of steel core as
shown in Figure 2.1(a).

In shell-type the steel core surrounds a major part of the windings as shown in Figure 2.1(b). For
a given output and voltage rating, core-type transformer requires less iron but more conductor
The vertical portions of the core are usually called limbs or legs and the top and bottom
portions are called yoke. This means that for single-phase transformers, core-type has two-
legged core where as shell type has three-legged core.

In core type transformers, most of the flux is confined to high permeability core. However,
some of the flux leaks through the core legs and non-magnetic material surrounding the core.

The flux called leakage flux, links one winding and not the other. A reduction in this leakage
flux is desirable as it improves the transformer performance considerably. Consequently, an
effort is always made to reduce it.

In the core-type transformer, this is achieved by placing half of the low voltage (LV) winding
over one leg and the other half over the second leg or limb. For the high
voltage (HV) winding also , half of the winding is over one leg and the other half over the second
leg, as shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Constructional details of single-phase (a) core-type transformer (b) Shelltype transformer
Low voltage winding is placed adjacent to the steel core and high voltage winding
outside, in order to minimize the amount of insulation required.

In shell-type transformer the low voltage and high voltage windings are wound over the
central limb and are interleaved or sandwiched as shown in Figure2.1(b). Note that the
bottom and top are low voltage coils.

In core-type transformer, the flux has a single path around the legs or yokes. Figure 2.1(a).

In shell-type transformer, the flux in the central limb divides equally and returns through
the outer two legs as shown in Figure 2.1(b).

There are two types of windings employed in transformers. The concentric coils are used
for core-type transformer as shown in Figure 2.1(a) and interleaved (or sandwiched) coils
for shell- type transformers as shown in Figure 2.2(b).
One type of laminations for the core and shell type of transformers is illustrated in
Figure 2.2 (a) and (b) respectively. In both core and shell-type transformers, the
individual laminations are cut in the form of long strips of L's, E’s and I's as shown
in Figure 2.3
.

Figure 2.3 long strips of E’s, L’s and I’s laminations

(a) (b)
Figure 2.2 two adjacent layers for (a) core
and (b) shell type transformers
In order to avoid high reluctance at the joints where the laminations are butted against
each other, the alternative layers are stacked as shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4 Arrangement of butt joints in magnetic core

During the transformer construction first the primary and secondary winding are wound, then the

laminations are pushed through the coil openings, layer by layer and the steel core is placed. The

laminations are then tightened by means of clamps and bolts.

Low-power transformers are air cooled whereas larger power transformers are immersed in oil for

better cooling. In oil-cooled transformer, the coil serves as a coolant and also as an insulation medium.
PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER OPERATIONS

Figure 2.5 Schematic diagram of a two-winding transformer

The primary winding P is connected to an alternating voltage source, therefore, an

alternating current Im starts flowing through N1 turns. The alternating mmf N1Im sets
up an alternating flux Φ which is confined to the high permeability iron path as
indicated in Figure 2.5. The alternating flux induces voltage E1 in the primary P and E2
in secondary S. If a load is connected across the secondary, load current starts flowing.
IDEAL TWO-WINDING TRANSFORMER

For a transformer to be an ideal one, the various assumptions are as follows

1. Winding resistances are negligible.

2. All the flux set up by the primary links the secondary windings i.e. all of
the flux is confined to the magnetic core.
3. The core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) are negligible.
4. The core has constant permeability, i.e. the magnetization curve for the
core is linear.
EMF Equation of A Transformer

Let the voltage V1 applied voltage primary be sinusoidal (or sine wave). Then
the current Im and, therefore, the flux  will flow with the variations of Im .
That is, the flux  is in time phase with the current Im and varies sinusoidally.
Let sinusoidal variation of flux  be expressed as

  m Sin t
Where m is maximum of the magnetic flux in Weber and  = 2f is the
The RMS value of the induced emf E1 in the primary winding is
E1m 2
E1   fN1m
2 2
 2 fN1m
 4.44 fN1m
Since the primary winding resistance is negligible hence e1, at every instant, must be equal and
opposite of V1. That is,
d
v1  e1   N1
or dt
V1   E1
The emf induced in the secondary is
d
e2   N 2   N 2m cos t
dt

 N 2 sin(t  )
2

 Em 2 sin(t  )
2
⸫ Rms value of emf E2 induced in secondary winding is given by

E2 m
E2   2  fN 2m
2
 4.44 fN 2m

Voltage Transformation Ratio

From Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), we get
E1 N1

E2 N 2

The ratio is known as voltage transformation ratio.

i) If N2 > N1 i.e., K<1, then the transformer is called a step-up transformer.

ii) If N2 < N1 i.e., K>1, then the transformer is known as a step-down transformer.
Again in an ideal transformer V1 I1  V2 I 2
Input VA  OutputVA

and

Hence,
(2.3). the currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio of Eq.
Also, the ratio of
E1 E2
  2 f m
N1 N 2

and this shows that the emf per turn in each of the windings is the same.
Example 2.1A single phase transformer has 350 primary and 1050 secondary
turns. The net cross-sectional area of the core is 55 cm2. If the primary winding be
connected to a 400 V, 50 Hz single phase supply, calculate (i) the maximum value of
flux density in the core and (ii) the voltage induced in the secondary winding.

Solution

i) Voltage applied to the primary = 400 V

Induced emf in the primary, E1 ≈ voltage applied to the primary, V1 = 400 V
Number of turns in the primary N1 = 350
2 4 2
Net cross-sectional area Ai = 55 Cm = 55x 10 m

Frequency of the supply f = 50 Hz

Induced emf in the primary is given by
Example 2.2The required no-load voltage ratio in a single phase 50 Hz, core
type transformer is 6600/500. Find the number of turns in each winding, if the
flux is to be 0.06 Wb.
Solution

Induced emf in the low voltage winding (secondary) of the transformer is given
by,
The number of turns in each winding should be a whole number, moreover each
winding in the core type transformer is accommodated on both the limbs. i.e.
half number of turns of each winding on one limb. As such the number of turns
in each winding should be even.
Considering these facts , the number of turns in low voltage winding, N2 = 38
ii) Number of turns in high voltage winding

Considering all the factors mentioned above, the number of turns in the high voltage
winding N1=500. Here the number of turns finally taken is 500 and not 502, because
the high voltage winding will be split up into a number of coils. With 250 turns on
each limb, high voltage winding on one limb can be split into 5 coils of 50 turns
each.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER
The equivalent circuit for any electrical engineering devices can be drawn if the
equations describing its behaviour are known. If any electrical device is to be
analysed and investigated further for suitable modifications, its appropriate
equivalent circuit is necessary.
The equivalent circuit for electromagnetic devices consists of a combination o1
resistances, inductances, capacitances, voltages etc.
Such an equivalent circuit (or circuit model) can, therefore, be analyzed and
studied easily by the direct application of electric circuit theory.
As stated above equivalent circuit is simply a circuit representation of the
equations describing the performance of the device.
In the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.6(a) (rl +jx1) and (r2 + jx2) are the leakage
impedances of the primary and secondary windings respectively.
The voltage V1' is treated as a voltage drop in the direction of I1. Recall
that the magnitude of V1' does not change appreciably from no load to
full load in large transformers. The magnitude of V1' depends on f ,N1
and m , since
For minor changes in supply voltage and frequency, which is common under
normal operation, Rc and Xm are treated constant.
In Figure 2.6 (a) and (b) , the ideal transformer has been introduced to show
the transformation of voltage and current between primary and secondary
windings . Even at this stage the transformer magnetization curve is assumed
linear, since the effect of higher order harmonic can't be represented in the
equivalent circuit.
Figure 2.6 Development of the exact equivalent circuit of a transformer.
In transformer analysis, it is usual to transfer the secondary quantities to
primary side or primary quantities to secondary side. Secondary resistance
drop I2 r2 when transferred to primary side must be multiplied by the turns
ratio N1 /N2.
Open Circuit (or No-Load) Test
The circuit diagram for performing open circuit test on a single phase transformer is given in
Figure 2.9 (a). In this diagram, a voltmeter, wattmeter and an ammeter are shown connected
on the low voltage side of the transformer.
The high voltage side is left open circuited. The rated frequency voltage applied to the
primary, i.e. low voltage side, is varied with the help of a variable ratio auto-transformer.
When the voltmeter reading is equal to the rated voltage of the L.V. winding , all three
instrument readings are recorded.
Short-Circuit Test

The low voltage-side of the transformer is short-circuited and the instruments are
placed on the high voltage side.

Equivalent circuit with short-circuit on the secondary

Connection diagram for short circuit test on a
side
transformer
The applied voltage is adjusted by auto-transformer, to circulate rated current in the high
voltage side.
A primary voltage of 2 to 12% of its rated value is sufficient to circulate rated currents in
both primary and secondary windings. About half (1 to 6%) of the applied voltage appears
across the secondary leakage impedance and, therefore, across the exciting branch.

The core flux induces the voltage across the exciting branch and since the latter is 1 to 6% of
rated voltage, the core flux is also 1 to 6% of its rated value. Hence the core loss, being
approximately proportional to the square of the core flux, is 0.01 percent
The wattmeter, in short circuit test, records the core loss and the ohmic loss in both windings. Since the core loss
has been proved to be almost negligible in comparison with the rated voltage core loss, the wattmeter can be taken
to register only the ohmic losses in both windings.
At rated-voltage, the exciting Current is 2 to 6% of full load current. When the voltage across the exciting branch is
1 to 6% of rated voltage, the exciting current
leakage impedance parameters for both primary and secondary are required
separately, then it is usual to take r1 = r2=½ re) and x1 = x2=½ xe, referred to the
same side.
Thus, the short-circuit test gives the following information:
(i) ohmic loss at rated current and frequency and
(ii) the equivalent resistance and equivalent leakage reactance.
Voltage regulation of a transformer can be determined from the data obtained
from short-circuit test. Data of both open-circuit and short-circuit tests is
necessary
(iii)for, obtaining all the parameters of exact equivalent circuit and
(iv) for calculating the transformer efficiency.
Polarity Test
On the primary side of a two-winding transformer, one terminal is positive with
respect to the other terminal at any one instant. At the same instant, one
terminal of the secondary winding is positive with respect to the other terminal.
These relative polarities of the primary and secondary terminals at any instant
must be known if the transformers are to be operated in parallel or are to be
used in a polyphase circuit.

Figure 2.11 Polarity test on a two winding transformer (a) subtractive polarity and
(b) additive polarity
Terminal A1 is connected to one end of the secondary winding and a voltmeter is
connected between A2 and the other end of the secondary winding.

A voltage of suitable value is now applied to the H.V. winding. Let E1 and E2 be
the e.m.fs induced on H.V. and L.V. sides respectively. If the voltmeter reading is
equal to E1–E2 then secondary terminal connected to A1 is positive and is marked
a1, the L.V. terminal connected to A2 through the voltmeter is negative .

If voltmeter reading is equal to E1+E2, then the terminals connected to A1 and

A2 are negative and positive and are marked a2 and a1 respectively
•When the voltmeter reads the difference E1–E2, the transformer is said to
possess a subtractive polarity and when voltmeter reads E1+E2 the transformer
has additive polarity.
•In subtractive polarity, the voltage between A2 and a2 (or A1 and a1) is reduced.

•The leads connected to these terminals and the two windings are, therefore,
not subjected to high voltage stress.
•In additive polarity the windings and the leads connected to A1, A2, a1 and a2
are subjected to high voltage stresses.
•On account of these reasons, subtractive polarity is preferable to additive
polarity.
Example 2.3 A 20 kVA, 2500/250 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer gave the
following test result
Open-circuit test (on L.V. side):250 V, 1.4 A, 105 W.
Short-circuit test (on H.V. side): 104 V, 8 A, 320 watts.
Compute the parameters of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to high-
voltage and low-voltage sides. Also draw the exact equivalent circuit referred to
the low -voltage side.
Solution
From open-circuit test:
TRANSFORMER PHASOR DIAGRAMS

The purpose of first considering an ideal transformer, i.e. a

transformer with no core losses, no winding resistance, no
magnetic leakage and constant permeability, is merely to
highlight the most important aspect of transformer action. Such
transformer never exists and now the phasor diagrams of real
transformer will be considered.
• a) Effect of transformer core loss
• The core loss (or iron loss) consists of hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
• These losses are always present in the ferromagnetic core of the transformer, since the
transformer is an ac operated magnetic device.
• The hysteresis loss in the core is minimized by using high grade material such as cold-rolled-
grain-oriented (CRGO) steel and the eddy current loss is minimized by using thin lamination
for the core. or 
No-load phasor diagram of a transformer.
• The no-load primary current Ie is called the exciting
current of the transformer and can be resolved into
two components.
• The component Im along m is called the reactive or
magnetizing current , since its function is to provide
the required magnetic flux m.
• The second component along V'1 is Ic and this
component is called the core- loss component. When
multiplied by V'1 gives the total core loss Pc
The total voltage drop in primary at no-load is Ie
(r1+jx1) = Iez1 where z1 is the primary leakage
impedance.
Therefore Figure 2.12(c) gives the phasor diagram of
transformer at no-load, where Nl is assumed to be
equal to N2.

The primary voltage equation at no-load can be

written as:

V1  V '  I ( r  jx )
Transformer Phasor Diagram Under Load

The secondary circuit of transformer is considered first and

then the primary circuit, for developing the phasor diagram of a
transformer under load.
When the switch S is closed, secondary current I2 starts flowing from
terminal n to the load. Assume the load to have a lagging power factor
so that I2 lags secondary load voltage V2 by an angle 2.
The secondary m.m.f. I2N2 gives rise to a leakage flux l2 which links only
the secondary and not the primary. The flux l2 is called the secondary
leakage flux and is in phase with I2, for the same reason that l1 is in
phase with Ie
The secondary leakage flux induces emf Ex2 in the secondary winding,
lagging l2 by 90°. The secondary no load voltage E2 must have a
component equal and opposite to –jx2I2. Thus the phasor sum of V2, I2r2
and jx2I2 gives the secondary induced emf E2

The voltage equation for secondary circuit can now be written as

E2  V2  I 2 ( r2  jx2 )  V2  I 2 z2
where z2 is the secondary leakage impedance of the transformer.
The voltage equation for primary circuit under load can be written
as
V1  V '  I ( r  jx )  V  I z
'

1


l 2

2

Transformer phasor diagram for (a) lagging p.f. load and (b) leading p.f. load
VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER
Constant voltage is the characteristics of most domestic, commercial and
industrial loads.
It is therefore, necessary that the output voltage of a transformer must
remain within narrow limits as the load and its power factor vary.
This requirement is more stringent in distribution transformers as these
directly feed the load centers.
The voltage drop in a transformer on load is chiefly determined by its
leakage reactance which must be kept as low as design and manufacturing
techniques would permit.
The voltage regulation is defined as voltage in secondary terminal voltage,
expressed as a percentage (per unit) of secondary rated voltage i.e.
The change in secondary terminal voltage with load current is due to the
primary and secondary leakage impedances of the transformer. The
magnitude of this change depends on the load power factor, load current,
total resistance and leakage reactance of a transformer.
A distribution transformer should have a small value of voltage regulation
(i.e. good voltage regulation) so that the terminal voltage at the consumers
does not vary widely as the load changes.
For a transformer of large voltage regulation (i.e. poor voltage regulation),
the voltage at the consumers' terminals will fall appreciably with increase in
load. This has a detrimental effect on the operation of fluorescent tubes,
T.V. sets, refrigeration motors, etc since these are designed to operate
satisfactorily at a constant voltage. Thus distribution transformer should
be designed to have a low value of leakage impedances.
E2  OC  OA  AB  BCor B' C' 
 OA  AB' cos 2  DB' sin 2 2

 V2  I 2re2 cos 2  I 2 xe2 sin 2

2

2
Thus the voltage drop in the secondary terminal voltage
E2  V2  I2 re2 cos 2  I 2 xe2 sin 2

Note carefully that E2-V2 is not equal to AD i.e. I2ze2. The change
in secondary terminal voltage is equal to the magnitude of E2 minus
the magnitude of V2.
In Eq.(2.1), per unit voltage regulation for any load current I2 is
It should be noted that are valid for lagging power factors only. For leading power factor
loads, the phasor diagram of Figure reveals that
Phasor diagram for 1-phase transformer for (a) negative voltage regulation (V.R);(b) zero V.R and
(c) maximum V.R
Example 2.4 A 6600/440 V, single-phase transformer has an
equivalent resistance of 0.02 p.u. and an equivalent reactance
of 0.05 p.u.
Find the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 pf lagging, if the
primary voltage is 6600 V. Find also the secondary terminal
voltage at full load.
TRANSFORMER LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY

Equipment is desired to operate at a high efficiency.

Fortunately, losses in transformers are small.

Because the transformer is a static device, there are no

rotational losses such as windage and friction losses in a rotating
machine.
In a well- designed transformer the efficiency can be as high as
99%.
Transformer Losses
There are mainly two kinds of losses in a transformer, namely
 Core loss and
 ohmic loss
The hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core can be expressed by :-

Where Kh = proportionality constant which depends upon the volume and quality of
the core material and units used.
Ke = Proportionality constant whose value depends on the volume and resistivity of the core
material, thickness of laminations and the units employed
Bm = maximum flux density in the core and
f = frequency of the alternating flux
The value of the exponent x (called Steinmetz’s constant) varies from 1.5 to 2.5 depending upon
the magnetic properties of the core material. Therefore, the total core loss is
Ohmic Loss When a transformer is loaded, ohmic loss (R) occurs in both the
primary and secondary winding resistances. Since the standard operating
temperature of electrical machines is 750C. The ohmic loss should be calculated at 750C.

Transformer Efficiency
The efficiency of a transformer ( or any other device) is defined as the ratio the output

power to input power. Thus

Where Pc = total core loss

R = total ohmic losses
V2I2 = output VA
Cos = load power factor
Condition for Maximum Efficiency.
Thus the maximum efficiency, for a constant load current, occurs at unity
power factor (i.e. at purely resistive load).
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
Generation, transmission and distribution of electric energy is
invariably done through the use of three-phase systems because of its
several advantages over single-phase systems. As such, a large
number of three-phase transformers are
(a)Three-phase transformer bank, both windings in star;(b) three-phase core-type
transformer
Three-Phase Transformer Connections
Three-phase transformers may have the following four standard
connections

(a) Star-Delta ( Y-) (b) Delta-Star (-Y)

(c) Delta-Delta (-) (d) Star-Star (Y-Y)

(a)Star-delta (Y-) Connection This connection is commonly used for stepping down
the voltage from a high level to a medium or low level. The insulation on the h.v.
side of the transformer is stressed only to 57.74%
(b) Delta-Star (Δ-Y) connection:- This type of connection is
used for stepping up the voltage to a high level. For example,
these are used in the beginning of h.v. transmission lines so
that insulation is stressed to about 57.74% of line voltage

Delta-Delta (Δ-Δ) Connection

This scheme of connections is used for large 1.v transformers.
It is because a delta- connected winding handles line voltage,
so it requires more turns per phase but of smaller cross-
sectional area. The absence of star point may be a
disadvantage in some applications.
(d) Star-Star (Y-Y) Connection
This connection is used for small h.v transformers . As stated
before, with star connection, turns per phase are minimum and
the winding insulation is stressed to 57.74% of line voltage.
Star-star connection is rarely used in practice because of
oscillatory neutral problems.