Some Highlights

During 50 Years of Fusion Research

Dale Meade
Fusion Innovation Research and Energy®
Princeton, NJ
United States of America

22nd IAEA Fusion Energy Conference

October 13-18, 2008
Geneva, Switzerland
Fusion Prior to Geneva 1958

• A period of rapid progress in science and technology

– N-weapons, N-submarine, Fission energy, Sputnik, ....

• Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion had great potential

– Much optimism in the early 1950s with expectation for a quick solution
– Political support and pressure for quick results
– Many very “innovative” approaches were put forward
– Early fusion reactors - Tamm/Sakharov, Spitzer

• Reality began to set in by the mid 1950s

– Collective effects - MHD instability (1954)
– Bohm diffusion was ubiquitous
– Meager plasma physics understanding led to trial and error approaches
– A multitude of experiments tried and ended up far from fusion conditions
– Magnetic Fusion research in the U.S. declassified in 1958
Fusion Plasma Physics, a New Scientific
Discipline, was born in the 1960s

• Theory of Fusion Plasmas

– Energy Principle developed in mid-50s became a powerful tool for assessing
macro-stability of various configurations
– Resistive macro-instabilities
– Linear stability analyses for idealized geometries revealed a plethora of
microinstabilities with the potential to cause anomalous diffusion Trieste School
– Neoclassical diffusion developed by Sagdeev and Galeev
– Wave propagation became basis for RF heating

• Experimental Progress (some examples)

– Most confinement results were were dominated by instabilities and ~ Bohm diffusion
– Stabilization of interchange instability by Min|B| in mirror - Ioffe
– Stabilization of interchange in a torus by Min<B> in multipoles - Ohkawa/Kerst
– Quiescent period in Zeta due to strong magnetic shear in self organized state
– Confinement gradually increased from 1 B to 5-10 B for low temp plasmas
– Landau Damping demonstrated
Stabilization of MHD Interchange by Geometry
(minimum |B|) in a Mirror Machine
Increasing
Bmultipole Well Formed

1.0 X30

E
ms

0.1

Increasing Bmultipole

• IOFFE IAEA Salzburg 1961, J Nuc Energy Pt C 7, p 501 1965

A Gathering in the Model-C Control Room

Late 1960s

T. Stix , H. Furth, E. Teller, L. Strauss, M. Rosenbluth, M. Gottlieb

1968-69 T-3 Breaks Bohm, Tokamaks Proliferate

• Hints of a major advance at IAEA Novosibirsk 1968, but skeptics abound

• Thomson Scattering (Peacock/Robinson) Dubna 1969 confirms Te ≈ 1 keV

• Energy confinement ≈ 30 B - Bohm barrier broken for a hot plasma
• Skeptics converted to advocates overnight, Model C Stellarator converted
to Symmetric Tokamak (ST) in 6 months, T-3 results are quickly reproduced.
• During the 1970’s ~ many medium size (Ip < 1 MA) tokamaks (TFR, JFT-2a,
Alcator A, Alcator C, ORMAK, ATC, PLT, DITE, DIII, PDX, ASDEX, ... were
built with the objectives of :
• Confinement scaling with size, Ip, n, T,.......
• Auxiliary heating (compression, ICRF, NBI, ECRH, LH )
• Current Drive (LH, NBI, ... )
• Impurity control (limiters, divertors)
40 years ago
Fusion was Prepared for a Major Next step
when Opportunity Knocked (1973 Oil Embargo)
• Amid calls for increased energy R&D, Fusion budgets rise sharply
- US Fusion budget increased a factor of 15 in 10 yrs.

• Four Large Tokamaks approved for construction less than a decade after T-3
• TFTR conservative physics/strong aux heating const began 1976
• JET shaped plasma - const began 1977
• JT-60 poloidal divertor- const began 1978
• T-15 Superconducting TF (NbSn) const began 1979

These were very large steps, taken before all the R&D was
completed.
Plasma Current 0.3 MA => 3MA to 7MA
Plasma Volume 1 m3 => 35 m3 to 100 m3
Auxiliary Heating 0.1 MW => 20 MW to 40 MW

J. Willis, MacFusion
Optimism about Confinement Increased in
the late 1970s
• Trapped Ion instabilities were predicted in the early 1970s to be a threat to the achievement high T i in tokamak geometries.

• In 1978, Ti ~ 5.8 keV was achieved in a collisionless plasma reducing concerns about Trapped Ion instabilities. Ti was increased to
7 keV in 1980.

• In ~ 1979 Alcator A with only ohmic heating achieved nE ≈ 1.5 x 1019 m-3 s, consistent with optimistic scaling E~ na2.

30 years ago
Auxiliary Heating Reveals New Trends 1981

*E

ISX-B

• Auxiliary heating allowed controlled experiments to reveal the scaling of

the global global confinement time.

• Confinement degradation observed as heating power was increased -

Low mode scaling would threaten objectives of the large tokamaks, and
tokamak based reactors.
H-Mode Discovered on ASDEX- 1982

• Facilitated new insights and understanding of transport, and

• Provided the baseline operating mode for ITER

F. Wagner, IPP
Tokamak Optimization

• By the mid 80s (~ 1984)

• It was clear tokamak performance would need to be improved, if the tokamak

were to lead to an attractive fusion power source.

•The benefits of cross-section shaping for increased confinement and beta were
demonstrated and understood in Doublet IIA and Doublet III.

• The  limit formulation by Troyon and Sykes provided a design guide for .

• Empirical scaling formulations (e.g., Goldston scaling) provided guidance for E

• An understanding of divertors emerged from JFT-2a, PDX, ASDEX, DIII, DITE.

• A second generation of flexible optimized tokamaks:

DIII-D, AUG, JT-60U, PBX, Alcator C-Mod were built in the late 1980s to extend
and develop the scientific basis for tokamaks.
Large Tokamaks Extend Plasma Parameters

• After about 6 years of construction TFTR, JET and JT-60 began operation
1982-84.

• By the mid 80s, after 4 years of operation the plasma parameter range
had been significantly extended
– Ti~ 20 keV and ne(0)E ~ 1.5x1019 m-3 s with neutral beam injection
– ne(0)E ~ 1.5x1020 m-3 s and Ti~ 1.5 keV with pellet injection
– H-Mode extended to large tokamaks, new improved performance regimes
discovered.
– Bootstrap current and current drive extended to MA levels
– Divertor extended to large scale

• Complex Technology demonstrated at large scale

• Enabling Technology - Neutral beams, pellet injection, PFCs

Fusion Temperatures Attained,
Fusion Confinement One Step Away

Ignition
10 1 Break-Even
Tokamak '90
Tokamak Power Plant
ITER
ni(0)E 10 0
TFTR(US)
FTU(EU)
JT-60 (JA)
JET(EU)
Alcator C - 1983
C-Mod(US) JT-60 (JA)
ni(0)ETi
(1020 m-3 s) Helical '00 ●
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● DIII-D(US) TFTR(US)
increased by ~107
LHD(JA)
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since 1958
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Tokamak '80
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ASDEX-U(EU)
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-2 Tokamak ’ 70
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10 -3 Reverse Field
Pinch
GAMMA-10(JA)
Tokamak '60
10 -4
10-1 1 10 1 10 2 JAEA
‘58
Plasma Temperature (keV)
Significant Fusion Power (>10MW) Produced 1990s
• 1991 JET 90/10-DT, 2 MJ/pulse, Q ~ 0.15, 2 pulses

• 1993-97 TFTR 50/50-DT, 7.5MJ/pulse, 11 MW, Q ~ 0.3, 1000 D-T pulses,

– Alpha heating observed, Alpha driven TAEs - alpha diagnostics
– ICRF heating scenarios for D-T
– 1 MCi (100 g) of T throughput, tritium retention
– 3 years of operation with DT, and then decommissioned.

• Advanced Tokamak Mode Employed for High Performance

– Improved ion confinement TFTR, DIII-D, QDTequiv ~ 0.3 in DIII-D 1995
– nET record => QDTequiv in JT-60U DD using AT mode 1996
– Bootstrap and current drive extended

• 1997 JET 50/50-DT 22MJ/pulse, 16 MW, Q ~ 0.65, ~100 D-T pulses

– Alpha heating extended, ICRF DT Scenarios extended,
– DT pulse length extended
– Near ITER scale D-T processing plant
– Remote handling
The Next Challenge -
Sustainment of Fusion Plasma Conditions

• Steady-state operation is a highly desirable characteristic for a

magnetic fusion power plant. This requires:

– Sustained magnetic configuration

• The stellarator (helical) configuration is inherently steady-state, or
• Advanced tokamak with high bootstrap current fraction and moderate
external current drive is also a possible steady-state solution .

– Effective removal of plasma exhaust and nuclear heat

• Power density and distribution of removed power
• Effect of self conditioned PFC on plasma behavior

• Helical/Stellarator Resurgence
– Confinement, beta approaching tokamak
– Opportunities for configuration optimization

• Long Pulse Superconducting tokamaks - T-7, T-15, Tore Supra,

TRIAM, EAST, KSTAR, SST-1, JT-60SA
Realizing The Advanced Tokamak
• Plasma cross-section shaping to enhance plasma current, power production
– 1968 Ohkawa (Plasma Current Multipole), 1973 T-9 Finger Ring,
– 1990s Spherical Tokamaks

• Bootstrap Current (self generated current)

– Predicted 1971 - Bickerton
– First observation 1983 in a mulitpole exp’t - Zarnstorff
– Observed in 1986 in tokamak -TFTR - Zarnstorff

• Beta limit physics “understood” for tokamak

–  = N (Ip/aB) where  = <p>/<B2>, 1983, Troyon, Sykes
– NTM Stabilization by ECRH ASDEX Upgrade, DIII-D or RS
– Resistive Wall Stabilization DIII-D ~2005

• Confinement enhancement by stabilizing ITG using RS

• Reversed shear with a hollow current profile provides the above:

– PEP modes on JET 1988
– ERS modes on TFTR 1994
– NCS modes on DIII-D 1994
– RS modes on JT-60U 1995 - record nT
– But all were transient

Tihiro Ohkawa with toroidal multipole at GA 1966

Four New Superconducting Tokamaks will Address Steady-
State Advanced Tokamak Issues in Non-Burning Plasmas

SST-1: R =1.1m, 0.22MA, 2008

EAST: R = 1.7m, 2MA, 2006

KSTAR: R = 1.8m, 2MA, 2008 JT-60SA: R = 3m, 5.5 MA, 2014

Optimizing the 2-D Geometry of a Tokamak

MAST NSTX

• Higher -limits at lower aspect ratio recognized in mid 1960s

• START achieved t ≈ 40% in 1991-96, NSTX 2004

• Very Low aspect ratio may allow a Cu TF coil engineering solution

in a D-T environment

• What is the optimum aspect ratio for overall system performance?

The Stellarator/Helical (3-D) Systems

Figure 8 Stellarator (Model A ~ 1954) and Spitzer (1993)

• The stellarator as first proposed by Spitzer May 1951 was a thermonuclear power
generator based on a linear cylinder with uniform magnetic field. A toroidal stellarator
based on a Figure 8 was described later.

• PPPL Model C - converted to tokamak in 1969, and the main stellarator effort was
carried forward by IPP and Japan Univ’s/NIFS through the 70s and 80s.
Sustained Hi  in Partially Optimized Stellarator W7-AS
4 4

      

2 W7-AS
1

0 3
2 ne
(1 02 0 m- 3)

<> (%)
0 2
25 .
20
Mirnov B
P o w e r ( M W ) (A .U .)

15
10
5
0 1
4
3 PNB

2
<> peak
1 Prad <> flat-top avg.
0
0
0.1 0.2 0.3
Time (s)
0.4 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
flat-top / E

• W7-AS was the first stellarator device based on modular non-planar magnetic field coils
• demonstrated commonality with tokamak physics like access to H-mode confinement regime
An Optimized Stellarator is Under Construction

Wendelstein 7-X
First Plasma 2014

Major radius: 5.5 m

Minor radius: 0.53 m
Plasma volume 30 m3
Induction on axis: 3T
Stored energy: 600 MJ
Machine mass: 725 t
W-7X is based on W-7AS, and is optimized to Pulse length: 30 min
reduce bootstrap plasma currents, fast particle loss, Aux Heating 20-40 MW
neoclassical transport, with good flux surfaces ,
MHD stability and feasible coils.
Reactor Scale Magnet Technology

• Reliable large scale (≤1.6 GJ) Cu magnets at B~ 5T have been used in the
tokamak operational environment for many years - many issues overcome
• A growing experience base in Superconducting Magnet Technology
Magnetic Mirror SC coils in the early 70’s and early 80s
First tokamak SC experiment T-7 1979
Large Coil Project mid 1980s
Large tokamak SC experiment T-15, Tore Supra 1988
EAST, KSTAR, and (SST-1) advanced tokamaks ~2007
ITER CS Coil Demo
• ITER will demonstrate reactor-scale SC magnets (≤43 GJ) at B ~5.3T
additional work to be done but this area has made great progress
• Significant benefits from continued development to higher B and/or higher T
An International Team is Forged to Develop a New Energy Source

Gorbachev and Reagan E. Velikhov

• Agreed to “cooperation on fusion research” November 21, 1985 Geneva

• The IAEA provides the framework for International Collaboration

• By Dec 2005, EU,JA, RF, KO,CN, IN and US had signed ITER agreement
ITER is Now Underway

ITER Site Under Construction

Reactor scale

First Plasma planned for 2018

First DT operation planned for ~2022

Inertial Confinement Fusion, Early Days

• Radiation compression of DT to produce fusion energy

demonstrated in the early 50s in Greenhouse George Cylinder
test (and others).
• Invention of the laser in early 60s offered the possibility of a
programmable repetitive driver for micro targets. Research
continued on intense particle beam drivers in USSR and US.
• Idealized calculations in late 60s suggested 1kJ needed to
achieve breakeven using micro targets and direct drive.
• 1972- Nature article by Nuckolls et al with computer modeling of
laser driven compression Nature Vol. 239, 1972, pp. 129
• Laser driven experiments at LLNL and elsewhere from mid 70s to
mid 80s (Nova), revealed importance of plasma instabilities and
driver uniformity, raising required driver energy to MJ range.
Construction of NIF/LMJ - ICF Burning Plasmas
• Classified Centurion-Halite nuclear tests in ~1986 reported to have
validated compression modeling

• Many aspects of US ICF declassified in Nov 1994, allowing target

designs to be discussed.

• Omega project reports gain of ~ 1% using direct drive of a DT capsule

in 1996.

• Fast Ignitor concept (1995) offers possibility of reduced driver energies

• There has been dramatic progress in driver intensity and pellet

fabrication in the past 40 years, and many challenges remain.

• Multiple paths in drivers (Glass, KrF, Z-pinch) are being pursued.

NIF Enabled by Rapid Advance in Laser Technology
• Glass laser energy has increased 106

• Fusion energy will need:

increased efficiency
increased repetition rate
Target Designs with Varying Degrees of Risk
Provide Adequate Gain for all Driver Concepts

Hot Spot Ignition

Tabak Snowmass
FI Expt’s -
Omega, FIREX,
HIPER
Ignition Campaign - starting 2010
Some Overall Highlights
• A strong scientific basis has been established for fusion.

• Diagnostics and Plasma Technology (Aux heating, CD, pellet inj) enabled progress.

• Several promising paths to fusion, each working on optimization and sustainment.

• Temperatures needed for fusion achieved - in many facilities.

• Confinement needed for fusion is being approached - one step away.

• Complex fusion systems have been operated at large scale.

• Fusion systems using fusion fuel (DT) operated safely.

• Fusion could move much faster if required resources were applied.

• Now on the threshold of energy producing plasmas in both magnetic and inertial fusion.
Facilities to Produce Fusion Energy are under
Construction

ITER NIF
First D-T ~2022 First D-T ~2010
Fusion Gain, Q 10 Fusion Gain, Q 10 - 20
Fusion Energy/pulse 200,000 MJ Fusion Energy/pulse 40 MJ
The Highlight for the next 50 years.

Fusion energy will begin powering the world.

Acknowledgements

E. Frieman, I. Bernstein, K. Fowler, J. Sheffield, R. Stambaugh, M. Kikuchi,

O. Motojima, D.Campbell, M. Watkins, F. Wagner, J. Callen, J. Willis, S.
Dean, S. Milora, R. Goldston, E. Marmar