POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES - BINAN CAMPUS

Brgy. Zapote, City of Binan, Laguna 4024

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL FOR ELEN 20044
BS Computer Engineering, Second Year Level, 1 st Semester, SY 2021-2022

Prepared By: Kris Rommel R. Ramos, ECE

Module 1: INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY

Overview
We see applications of electricity all around us, especially in the electronic products we own and operate
every day. For example, we depend on electricity for lighting, heating, air conditioning and for the operation
of our vehicles, cell phones, appliances, computers, and home entertainment systems to name a few. The
applications of electricity are extensive and almost limitless to the imagination. Although there are many
applications of electricity, electricity itself can be explained in terms of electric charge, voltage, and current.
In this module, you will be introduced to the basic concepts of electricity which include a discussion of the
following topics: basic atomic structure, the coulomb unit of electric charge, the volt unit of potential
difference, the ampere unit of current, and the ohm unit of resistance. You will also be introduced to
conductors, semiconductors, insulators, and the basic characteristics of an electric circuit.

Module 1
Objectives

After effectively completing the module, you should be able to:

1) Define electricity.
2) Define the terms conductor, insulator, and semiconductor and give examples of
each.
3) Define potential difference and voltage and list the unit of each.
4) Define current and list its unit of measure.
5) Describe the difference between voltage and current.
6) Define resistance and conductance and list the unit of each.
7) List three important characteristics of an electric circuit.
8) Describe the difference between direct and alternating current.

Module 1
Course Materials

A. What is electricity?
- It is a phenomenon associated with stationary or moving electric charges. Electric
charge is a fundamental property of matter and is borne by elementary particles. In
electricity the particle involved is the electron, which carries a charge designated, by
convention, as negative. Thus, the various manifestations of electricity are the result of
the accumulation or motion of numbers of electrons.
B. Definition of terms
Conductor - When electrons can move easily from atom to atom in a material, the material
is a conductor. In general, all metals are good conductors, with silver the best and copper
second. Their atomic structure allows free movement of the outermost orbital electrons.
Copper wire is generally used for practical conductors because it costs much less than
silver. The purpose of using conductors is to allow electric current to flow with minimum
opposition. The wire conductor is used only to deliver current produced by the voltage
source to a device that needs the current to function. As an example, a bulb lights only
when current flows through the filament.

Module 1
Course Materials
Insulator - A material with atoms in which the electrons tend to stay in their own orbits is
an insulator because it cannot conduct electricity very easily. However, insulators can hold
or store electricity better than conductors. An insulating material, such as glass, plastic,
rubber, paper, air, or mica, is also called a dielectric, meaning it can store electric charge.
Insulators can be useful when it is necessary to prevent current flow. In addition, for
applications requiring the storage of electric charge, as in capacitors, a dielectric material
must be used because a good conductor cannot store any charge.

Semiconductor – A material that is conducting less than metal conductors but more than
insulators are called semiconductors. A good example of a semiconductor material is
carbon; in the same group are germanium and silicon, which are commonly used for
transistors and other semiconductor components. Practically all transistors are made of
silicon. Semiconductors have four electrons in the outermost ring. This means that they
neither gain nor lose electrons but share them with similar atoms. The reason is that four is
exactly halfway to the stable condition of eight electrons in the outside ring.

Module 1
Course Materials

C. The Volt Unit

The volt unit of potential difference is named after Alessandro Volta (1745–1827).
Fundamentally, the volt is a measure of the amount of work or energy needed to move an
electric charge. By definition, when 0.7376 foot-pound (ft·lb) of work is required to move 6.25
10 18 electrons between two points, the potential difference between those two points is one
volt. (Note that 6.25 10 18 electrons make up one coulomb of charge.) The metric unit of work
or energy is the joule (J). One joule is the same amount of work or energy as 0.7376 ft lb.
Therefore, we can say that the potential difference between two points is one volt when one
joule of energy is expended in moving one coulomb of charge between those two points.
1𝐽
 
Expressed as a formula, 1 V = 1𝐶
Consider the 2.2-V lead-acid cell in the Figure (a) on the
right. Its output of 2.2 V means that this is the amount of
potential difference between the two terminals. The lead-
acid cell, then, is a voltage source, or a source of
electromotive force (emf). The schematic symbol for a
battery or dc voltage source is shown in Figure (b)
Module 1
Course Materials

D. The Ampere of Current

Since current is the movement of charge, the unit for stating the amount of current is defined
in rate of flow of charge. The ampere unit of current is named after André M. Ampère (1775–
1836). The symbol for current is I or i for intensity, since the current is a measure of how
intense or concentrated the electron flow is. Two amperes of current in a copper wire is a
higher intensity than one ampere; a greater concentration of moving electrons results because
of more electrons in motion. Sometimes current is called amperage . However, the current in
electronic circuits is usually in smaller units, milliamperes and microamperes.
Current direction I

Voltage Source Resistance load

Module 1
Course Materials

E. The Resistance and Ohm Unit

The fact that a wire conducting current can become hot is evidence that the work done by the
applied voltage in producing current must be accomplished against some form of opposition.
This opposition, which limits the amount of current that can be produced by the applied
voltage, is called resistance . Conductors have very little resistance; insulators have a large
amount of resistance. The practical unit of resistance is the ohm . A resistance that develops
0.24 calorie of heat when one ampere of current flows through it for one second has one ohm of
opposition. The symbol for resistance is R . The abbreviation used for the ohm unit is the Greek
letter omega, written as Ω . In diagrams, resistance is indicated by a zigzag line, as shown by R
in Figure (b)
A typical Resistor

Resistance symbol

Module 1
Course Materials
F. The Closed Circuit
In applications requiring current, the components are arranged in the form of a circuit, as shown in figure. A
circuit can be defined as a path for current flow. The purpose of this circuit is to light the incandescent bulb.
The bulb lights when the tungsten filament wire inside is white hot, producing an incandescent glow. The
tungsten filament cannot produce current by itself. A source of potential difference is necessary. Since the
battery produces a potential difference of 1.5 V across its two output terminals, this voltage is connected
across the filament of the bulb by the two wires so that the applied voltage can produce current through the
filament.
In Figure b, the schematic diagram of the circuit is
shown. Here the components are represented by
shorthand symbols. Note the symbols for the battery
and resistance. The connecting wires are shown simply
as straight lines because their resistance is small
enough to be neglected. A resistance of less than 0.01
for the wire is practically zero compared with the 300
Ω resistance of the bulb. If the resistance of the wire
must be considered, the schematic diagram includes it
as additional resistance in the same current path.

Module 1
Course Materials
F.1 The 3 characteristics of a closed circuit
Any electric circuit has three important characteristics:
1. There must be a source of potential difference. Without the applied voltage, current
cannot flow.
2. There must be a complete path for current flow, from one side of the applied voltage
source, through the external circuit, and returning to the other side of the voltage
source.
3. The current path normally has resistance. The resistance is in the circuit either to
generate heat or limit the amount of current.

Module 1
Course Materials
G. Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC)

G.1 Direct Current(DC or dc)

The electron flow illustrated for the circuit with a bulb in the
figure is direct current (dc) because it has just one direction.
The reason for the unidirectional current is that the battery
maintains the same polarity of output voltage across its two
terminals. The flow of charges in one direction and the fixed
polarity of applied voltage are the characteristics of a dc
circuit. The current can be a flow of positive charges, rather
than electrons, but the conventional direction of current does
not change the fact that the charges are moving only one
way.

Module 1
Course Materials
G.2 Alternating Current(AC or ac)

An alternating voltage source periodically reverses or alternates in

polarity. The resulting alternating current (ac) , therefore,
periodically reverses in direction. In terms of electron flow, the
current always flows from the negative terminal of the voltage
source, through the circuit, and back to the positive terminal, but
when the generator alternates in polarity, the current must reverse
its direction. The 60-cycle ac power line used in most homes is a
common example. This frequency means that the voltage polarity
and current direction go through 60 cycles of reversal per second.
The unit for 1 cycle per second is 1 hertz (Hz). Therefore 60 cycles
per second is a frequency of 60 Hz.

Module 1
Course Materials

F. Videos to watch:
1. What is electricity?
- Working principle of electricity
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mc979OhitAg
2. Voltage, Current, and Resistance explained
- Know the 3 important factors of electricity
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=08YugQce9OA
3. What is Alternating Current and Direct Current?
-Familiarization about AC and DC
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vN9aR2wKv0U

Reference book:
- Grob’s Basic Electronics, 11th Edition, By Mitchel E. Schultz, Western Technical College, 2010

Module 1
Module 2: SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY

Overview

As electricity has been a part of our daily lives, there are lots of ways on how to
generate them. From as big as the power plants to as small as rubbing materials
together, electricity can be easily found through proper process. Also the world has
been changing directives on generating such electric energy, that investors and pool of
engineers and experts now turn into more-efficient-less-pollution generation of
electricity. But imagine that you can also generate it even in your house; of course on a
smaller scale. Nevertheless, electricity can be found around us.

Module 2
Objectives

After successfully completing this module, you should be able to:

1. Determine the sources of electricity.

2. Familiarize how battery works.

3. Define how electricity can be acquired through movement of magnetic materials.

4. Know how photoelectric effect happens and how solar cells generate electricity.

Module 2
Course Materials

A. Sources of electricity
-There are electrons and protons in the atoms of all materials, but to do useful work, the
charges must be separated to produce a potential difference that can make current flow.
Some of the more common methods of providing electrical effects are listed here.

A.1 Static Electricity by Friction - In this method,

electrons in an insulator can be separated by the
work of rubbing to produce opposite charges that
remain in the dielectric. An electrostatic discharge
(ESD) occurs when one of the charged objects comes
into contact with another dissimilarly charged object.
The electrostatic discharge is in the form of a spark.

Module 2
Course Materials How battery works

A.2 Conversion of Chemical Energy - Wet

or dry cells and batteries are the
applications. Here a chemical reaction
produces opposite charges on two
dissimilar metals, which serve as the
negative and positive terminals.

A.3 Electromagnetism - Electricity and magnetism

are closely related. Any moving charge has an
associated magnetic field; also, any changing
magnetic field can produce current. A motor is an
example showing how current can react with a
magnetic field to produce motion; a generator
produces voltage by means of a conductor rotating
in a magnetic field.
Module 2
Course Materials

A.4 Photoelectricity - Some materials are photoelectric, that is, they can emit electrons when
light strikes the surface. The element cesium is often used as a source of photoelectrons . Also,
photovoltaic cells or solar cells use silicon to generate output voltage from the light input. In
another effect, the resistance of the element selenium changes with light. When this is
combined with a fixed voltage source, wide variations between dark current and light current
can be produced. Such characteristics are the basis of many photoelectric devices, including
television camera tubes, photoelectric cells, and phototransistors.

Module 2
Course Materials

B. Videos to watch:
1. Electromagnetism and electricity
-Turning magnetism into electricity
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-bVi1w0m8x8
2. How battery works?
- Battery electricity working principle
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PXNKkcB0pI4
3. Solar Power System explained
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m6UgO6-HELc

Reference book:
- Grob’s Basic Electronics, 11th Edition, By Mitchel E. Schultz, Western Technical College, 2010

Module 2
Activity no. 1
You will need the following:
a) Plastic comb( typical straight one, not the brush type)
b) Small pieces of paper (quickest way is grab a paper then tear them into small bits;
make sure it comes in seed sizes)
c) Flat wooden area( a table or chair will do the trick)
d) Hair (the longer the better)
Now do this:
1. Put the pieces of paper on top of the wooden table.
2. With your hair clean and dry, comb your hair for around 2 minutes using the plastic
comb.
3. Now place the comb near on top of the pieces of paper(give a clearance of around an
inch or less).
4. Watch the paper stick into the comb. Observe how much time the paper is into the
comb.
5. Repeat the process but longer time period of brushing the hair with the comb.
Compare if the time that the paper will stick into the comb changes or not.

Module 2
THE DIGITAL MULTIMETER
Module 3: AND THE SI UNIT

Overview

Since we knew in the previous module that some of the amounts of electricity comes
in huge values, a multimeter comes in as a handy tool for every electrical engineer or
technician. As an engineering student studying electronics, a multimeter is a very
useful tool in measuring different signals such as voltages, current, and resistance. It
can also be used in troubleshooting boards, continuity, or even on complex electronics
designs. Before technicians use analog type with a dial on display, but now a digital
multimeter is widely known and can be cheaply bought in an electronics store.

Module 3
Objectives

After successfully completing this module, the student should be able to:

1. Define what a multimeter is and differentiate analog to digital multimeter(DMM).

2. Learn how to use basic functions of a multimeter.

3. Learn how to test basic electric components using a DMM

Module 3
Course Materials
The Analog Multimeter

A analog or analogue multimeter is one of the trusty

workhorses of the electronics test industry. Analogue
multimeters have been in use for very many years
and sometimes go by the name VOA as a result of the
fact that they measure volts, ohms and amps. These
multimeters are extremely flexible and enable very
many faults to be found in an electronic circuit.

The analogue test meters are able to give a good

account of themselves and can provide readings that
are sufficiently accurate for most purposes. They do
require a few different skills to the digital multimeters
that are more widespread these days, but they are
still very easy to use.

Module 3
Course Materials
The Digital Multimeter

As an electronics technician, you can

expect to encounter many situations
where it will be necessary to measure the
voltage, current, or resistance in a circuit.
When this is the case, a technician will
most likely use a digital multimeter (DMM)
to make these measurements. A DMM
may be either a handheld or benchtop
unit. Both types are shown in the figure on
the right. All digital meters have numerical
readouts that display the value of voltage,
current, or resistance being measured.

Module 3
Course Materials
The Digital Multimeter

Let’s take a closer looks on the DMM

and get familiarize in its parts.
• Main Display
• Rotary Knob
• DC Voltage Range
• AC Voltage Range
• Resistance
• DC Current Range
• Transistor Jack Slot
• Thermistor Jack Slot
• hFE (selected during testing of
transistors)
• Temperature
• Current Probe Slot
• Voltage Probe Slot
• COM(common) Probe Jack
Module 3
Course Materials
A. Measuring Voltage
Figure (a) shows a typical DMM measuring the voltage across the
terminals of a battery. To measure any voltage, the meter leads
are connected directly across the two points where the potential
difference or voltage exists. For dc voltages, the red lead of the
meter is normally connected to the positive (+) side of the
potential difference, whereas the black lead is normally connected
to the negative (-) side. When measuring an alternating (ac)
voltage, the orientation of the meter leads does not matter since
the voltage periodically reverses polarity anyway. Also take note
when measuring AC voltage, select in the range of “V” with ACV or
~ symbol, and for DC voltage use DCV or symbol.

(a)

Module 3
Course Materials
B. Measuring Current
Figure (b) shows the DMM measuring the current in a
simple dc circuit consisting of a battery and a resistor.
Notice that the meter is connected between the positive
terminal of the battery and the right lead of the resistor.
Unlike voltage measurements, current measurements
must be made by placing the meter in the path of the
moving charges. To do this, the circuit must be broken
open at some point, and then the leads of the meter must
be connected across the open points to recomplete the
circuit. When measuring the current in a dc circuit, the
black lead of the meter should be connected to the point
that traces directly back to the negative side of the
potential difference. Likewise, the red lead of the meter
should be connected to the point that traces directly back
to the positive side of the potential difference. When
measuring ac currents, the orientation of the meter leads
(b) is unimportant.
Module 3
Course Materials
C. Measuring Resistance
Figure (c) shows the DMM measuring the ohmic value of a single
resistor. Note that the orientation of the meter leads is
unimportant when measuring resistance. What is important is
that no voltage is present across the resistance being measured,
otherwise the meter could be damaged. Also, make sure that no
other components are connected across the resistance being
measured. If there are, the measurement will probably be both
inaccurate and misleading.

(c)
Module 3
Course Materials
D. The SI Unit
The “SI unit” is an abbreviation of the French word Système International. The International System Of Units
(SI) is the metric system that is used universally as a standard for measurements. SI units play a vital role in
scientific and technological research and development. The SI units can be expressed either as standard
multiple or as fractional quantities. These quantities are defined with the help of prefix multipliers with
powers of 10 (see Fig. 1). SI unit is an international system of measurements that are used universally in
technical and scientific research to avoid the confusion with the units. Having a standard unit system is
important because it helps the entire world to understand the measurements in one set of unit system.

The SI unit is made up of 7 base units which are used for defining 22 derived units. Such base units are:

• Unit for length

• Unit for mass
• Unit for time
• Unit for electric current
• Unit for thermodynamic temperature
• Unit for amount of substance
• Unit for luminous intensity

Module 3
Course Materials
D.1 The SI Prefixes
Table on the right
shows the SI
prefixes used in
different
measurement.

A SI symbol may
be used to
shorten the
prefixes.

Module 3
Course Materials
D.2 The SI Base Units List
As we have learned, there are 7 SI base units. The seven units along with their SI unit and symbol are given below:
1.Unit of length, meter (m): Meter is the SI unit of length and is defined by taking the fixed value of the
speed of light in vacuum. It is expressed as m.s-1.
2.Unit of mass, kilogram (kg): Kilogram is the SI unit of mass and is defined by taking the fixed value of the
Planck constant. It is expressed as kg.m2.s-1.
3.Unit of time, second (s): Second is the SI unit of time and is defined by taking the fixed value of Cesium
frequency. It is expressed as s1.
4.Unit of electric current, ampere (A): Ampere is the SI unit of electric current and is defined by taking the
fixed value of the elementary charge.
5.Unit of thermodynamic temperature, Kelvin (K): Kelvin is the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature and
is defined by taking the fixed value of Boltzmann constant k = 1.380649×10-23.
6.Unit of the amount of substance, mole (mol): Mole is the SI unit of amount of substance and is defined
by the fixed value of Avogadro constant NA. One mole contains 6.02214076×1023 elementary entities and is
expressed as mol-1.
7.Unit of luminous intensity, candela (cd): Candela is the SI unit of luminous intensity and is defined by the
fixed value of the luminous efficacy.

Module 3
Course Materials
D. Videos to watch:
1. Analog vs Digital Multimeter: which is better?
- advantages and disadvantages of each multimeter
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j1UVd3dBRq0

2. How to Use a Multimeter for Beginners

- Video on how to measure voltage, resistance, continuity and amp measurements
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TdUK6RPdIrA
3. S.I. base units and derived units
- An explanation of S.I. base units and derived units
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DTv_eI9Hlro

Reference book:
- Grob’s Basic Electronics, 11th Edition, By Mitchel E. Schultz, Western Technical College, 2010

Module 3
Activity no. 2
Making a DIY(Do-It-Yourself) Continuity Tester
You will need the following:
a) Wire (maybe 1 meter or less will do, use only small, thin wires to cut easily). (+)

b) flashlight bulb, or any small bulb that you have. (-)

c) Electrical or Scotch tape

d) Pair of scissors
Figure (a)
e) Battery (you may use AA, or 9 volts battery, whichever you have)
Now do this:
1. Cut 3 pieces of wires having a length of 5-10 inches depending on the wire that you have.
2. Remove a portion of insulation(the outer skin or plastic-rubber) on both ends of the 3
wires, revealing the actual copper wire. Connect the copper part of the 1 st wire to the (+) of
the battery, then the other end on one of the metal part of the bulb, then 2 nd wire on the
other metal part of the bulb(bottom part), then 3rd wire to the (-) of the battery. Figure (a)
is shown to follow the connections.
3. Now you will have 2 remaining ends of the wires. You now have an instant continuity
tester! You may try to check if the are loose connections or suspected bad wirings with the
use of our DIY tester. DO NOT USE THIS DIRECTLY ON 220v OUTLET OR ON ANY DEVICE
THAT IS CURRENTLY RUNNING!!!
Module 2
Module 4: THE RESISTOR
Overview

Resistors are used in a wide variety of applications in all types of electronic circuits.
Their main function in any circuit is to limit the amount of current or to produce a
desired drop in voltage. Resistors are manufactured in a variety of shapes and sizes
and have ohmic values ranging from a fraction of an ohm to several megohms. The
power or wattage rating of a resistor is determined mainly by its physical size. There is,
however, no direct correlation between the physical size of a resistor and its resistance
value. In this module, you will be presented with a basic discussion of the following
resistor topics: resistor types and resistor color coding.

Module 4
Objectives

After completing this module, the student should be able to:

1. Enumerate several different types of resistors and describe the characteristics of each type.

2. Understand the resistor color code to determine the resistance and tolerance of a resistor.

3. Explain the significance of a resistor’s power rating

Module 4
Course Materials
A. The Resistor
 
The two main characteristics of a resistor are its resistance R in
ohms and its power rating in watts (W). Resistors are available in
a very wide range of R values, from a fraction of an ohm to many
kilohms (kΩ) and megohms (MΩ). One kilohm is 1000Ω and one
megohm is 1,000,000Ω. The power rating for resistors may be as
high as several hundred watts or as low as W. The R is the
resistance value required to provide the desired current or
voltage. Also important is the wattage rating because it specifies
the maximum power the resistor can dissipate without excessive
heat. Dissipation means that the power is wasted, since the
resultant heat is not used. Too much heat can make the resistor
burn. The wattage rating of the resistor is generally more than
the actual power dissipation, as a safety factor. Resistors with
higher R values usually have lower wattage ratings because they
have less current. As an example, a common value is 1 M at ¼ W,
for a resistor only ¼ in. long. The lower the power rating, the
smaller the actual size of the resistor. However, the resistance
value is not related to physical size. Also resistor may come with
fixed ohmic value, adjustable, multiple valued, temperature-
defined, or be controlled via photoelectric characteristics.
Module 4
Course Materials
A.1 Wire-Wound Resistors
-In this construction, a special type of wire called
resistance wire is wrapped around an insulating core. The
length of wire and its specific resistivity determine the R
of the unit.

Wire-Wound Resistors

A.2 Carbon-Composition Resistors

-These resistors are made of finely divided carbon or
graphite mixed with a powdered insulating material as a
binder in the proportions needed for the desired R value

Carbon-Composition Resistors
Module 4
Course Materials

A.3 Film-Type Resistors

-There are two kinds of film-type resistors: carbon-film and metal-film resistors .
A.3.1 The carbon-film resistor, is made by depositing a thin layer of carbon on an
insulated substrate. The carbon film is then cut in the form of a spiral to form the
resistive element. The resistance value is controlled by varying the proportion of carbon
to insulator.

Carbon-Film Resistors
Metal-Film Resistors

A.3.2 Metal-film resistors are constructed in a manner similar to the carbon-film type.
However, in a metal-film resistor, a thin film of metal is sprayed onto a ceramic substrate
and then cut in the form of a spiral. The length, thickness, and width of the metal spiral
determine the exact resistance value.
Module 4
Course Materials

A.4 Surface-Mount Resistors

-Surface-mount resistors, also called chip resistors, are constructed
by depositing a thick carbon film on a ceramic base. The exact
resistance value is determined by the composition of the carbon
itself, as well as by the amount of trimming done to the carbon
deposit. The resistance can vary from a fraction of an ohm to well Surface-Mount Resistors
over a million ohms. Power dissipation ratings are typically 1⁄8 to ¼
W.

A.5 Fusible Resistors

-This type is a wire-wound resistor made to burn open easily when
the power rating is exceeded. It then serves the dual functions of a
fuse and a resistor to limit the current. They look similar to wire-
wound or metal resistors in package, only with different color or a
current rating is indicated.
Fusible Resistors

Module 4
Course Materials

A.6 Thermistor
-A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor whose Thermistor
Schematic Symbol
resistance value changes with changes in operating
temperature. Because of the self-heating effect of
current in a thermistor, the device changes resistance
with changes in current. Thermistors are frequently
used in electronic circuits in which it is desired to
provide temperature measurement, temperature
control, and temperature compensation. Shown in
figure (a) is the thermistor schematic symbol and (b)
are samples.

Thermistor
samples

Module 4
Course Materials
B. Resistor Color Coding Resistor Color Code
Because carbon resistors are small,
they are color-coded to mark their
R value in ohms. The basis of this
system is the use of colors for
numerical values, as listed in the
given table. In memorizing the
colors, note that the darkest colors,
black and brown, are for the lowest
numbers, zero and one, whereas
white is for nine. The color coding
is standardized by the Electronic
Industries Alliance (EIA).

Module 4
Course Materials
B.1 Resistor Color Stripes
The use of colored bands or stripes is the most common system for color-coding resistors, as shown the
figure below. The colored bands or stripes completely encircle the body of the resistor and are usually
crowded toward one end. Reading from left to right, the first band closest to the edge gives the first digit
in the numerical value of R . The next band indicates the second digit. The third band is the decimal
multiplier, which tells us how many zeros to add after the first two digits.

Module 4
Course Materials
How to Read?
In figure (a) , the first stripe is red for 2 and the next stripe is green for 5. The red multiplier in the third
stripe means add two zeros to 25, or “this multiplier is 10 2 ”. The result can be illustrated as follows:

***
Therefore, this R value is 2500Ω or 2.5 kΩ.

The fourth band is for tolerance. As given in the figure,

the resistor has ± 5% (gold), so the exact resistor value
can go from 2375Ω to 2625Ω. If you need a resistor within
this value range, you may simply buy a 2.5kΩ resistor.
***Tolerance (fourth band)
Gold - ± 5%
Silver - ± 10%
No Color- ± 20%
Module 4
Course Materials
C Resistor Power Ratings
-In addition to having the required ohms value, a resistor should have a wattage rating high enough to
dissipate the power produced by the current flowing through the resistance without becoming too hot.
Carbon resistors in normal operation often become warm, but they should not get so hot that they
“sweat” beads of liquid on the insulating case. Wire-wound resistors operate at very high temperatures; a
typical value is 300°C for the maximum temperature. If a resistor becomes too hot because of excessive
power dissipation, it can change appreciably in resistance value or burn open. The power rating is a
physical property that depends on the resistor construction, especially physical size.

Note the following:

• A larger physical size indicates a higher power rating.
• Higher wattage resistors can operate at higher temperatures.
• Wire-wound resistors are larger and have higher wattage ratings than carbon resistors.

Module 4
Course Materials
D. Videos to watch:
1. How resistor work?
- Resistors explained and how to use it in electricity
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rcSOcbu6pDM
2. Types of Resistors
- Video of different types of resistors
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AOi6vUOtHHM
3. Resistor Color Code
- How to read resistor color codes
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLD7AgAYqwA

Reference book:
- Grob’s Basic Electronics, 11th Edition, By Mitchel E. Schultz, Western Technical College, 2010

Module 4
Activity no. 3
Direction. Complete the table below by filling out the missing color/value codes.

1st Band 2nd Band 3rd Band 4th Band Resistance Value Resistance in SI*
(in Ω)
Green Red Yellow Gold
Red Brown Orange Silver
Orange Red Blue Gold
Blue Yellow Red Silver
Violet Orange Red Silver
Green Green Blue Gold
Yellow Blue Orange No Color
Brown Red Blue Gold
Red Blue Yellow No Color
Blue Green Orange Silver

*Tip: In converting values into SI form, the best value should have a numerical value of less than 1000

Module 4
Module 5: THE OHM’S LAW

Overview

The mathematical relationship between voltage, current, and resistance was

discovered in 1826 by Georg Simon Ohm. The relationship, known as Ohm’s law, is the
basic foundation for all circuit analysis in electronics. Ohm’s law, which is the basis of
this module, states that the amount of current, I , is directly proportional to the
voltage, V , and inversely proportional to the resistance, R . It was discovered back
then when voltage is being induced to a certain resistive load ( a metal like copper in
the case), current is produced, which therefore gives birth to the electricity industry.

Module 5
Objectives

After completing this module, the student should be able to:

1. List the three forms of Ohm’s law.

2. Use Ohm’s law to calculate the current, voltage, or resistance in a circuit.

3. List the multiple and submultiple units of voltage, current, and resistance.

4. Calculate the power in a circuit when the voltage and current, current and resistance, or voltage

and resistance are known.

Module 5
Course Materials
A. The Ohm’s Law
If we keep the same resistance in a circuit but vary the voltage,
the current will vary. The circuit in the figure demonstrates this
idea. The applied voltage V can be varied from 0 to 12V, as an
example. The bulb has a 12-V filament, which requires this much
voltage for its normal current to light with normal intensity. The
meter I indicates the amount of current in the circuit for the
bulb. With 12V applied, the bulb lights, indicating normal
current. When V is reduced to 10V, there is less light because of
less I . As V decreases, the bulb becomes dimmer. For zero volts
applied, there is no current and the bulb cannot light. In With volts as the practical unit for V and ohms
summary, the changing brilliance of the bulb shows that the for R , the amount of current I is in amperes.
current varies with the changes in applied voltage. Therefore,

For the general case of any V and R , Ohm’s law is: amperes(A) =  𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠(𝑣)
𝑉 𝑜h𝑚𝑠 (Ω)
 
I=𝑅 where,
A = amperes; unit for current
where I is the amount of current through the v = volts; unit for voltage
resistance R connected across the source of Ω = ohms; unit for resistance
potential difference V.
Module 5
Course Materials
B. Three forms of Ohm’s law
We can easily mathematically derived the three forms of Ohm’s law from its original form. See the following forms
of Ohm’s law below.

 𝑉  𝑉
I =𝑅 R= 𝐼 V = I×R or simply IR

(a) Original form (b) With respect to resistance (c) The popular/widely known form

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠(𝑣)  =  𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠(𝑣)
amperes(A) =   𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒( 𝐴)  
𝑜h𝑚𝑠 (Ω )

where,
A = amperes; unit for current
v = volts; unit for voltage
Ω = ohms; unit for resistance

Module 5
Course Materials
Problem Examples.
Let’s try solving the following exercises.

I
120v
 
8

I
120v
 
2400

Module 5
Course Materials
C. Multiple and Submultiple units
The basic units—ampere, volt, and
ohm—are practical values in most
electric power circuits, but in many
electronics applications, these units
are either too small or too big. As
examples, resistances can be a few
million ohms, the output of a high-
voltage supply in a computer
monitor is about 20,000 V, and the
current in transistors is generally
thousandths or millionths of an
ampere. In such cases, it is often
helpful to use multiples and
submultiples of the basic units.
These multiple and submultiple
values are based on the table on
the right.
Module 5
Course Materials
D. Power
The unit of electric power is the watt (W), named after James Watt (1736–1819). One watt of power
equals the work done in one second by one volt of potential difference in moving one coulomb of
charge. Remember that one coulomb per second is an ampere. Therefore power in watts equals the
product of volts times amperes.
Examples
Mathematically, we can expressed power as:

Power (w or watts) =volts (v) × amperes (A)

where,
P = watts; unit for power
v = volts; unit for voltage
A = amperes; unit for current

Module 5
Course Materials
D. Videos to watch:
1. Ohm’s Law Basics
- Ohm’s law explained with triangle technique
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CztiI0re5Eo
2. Open and Closed Circuit
- Determining open/closed circuits to evaluate if there is current.
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v5RJf_V0LYA
3. Electrical Power
- How power is related to circuits
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VSpB3HivkhY

Reference book:
- Grob’s Basic Electronics, 11th Edition, By Mitchel E. Schultz, Western Technical College, 2010

Module 5
Activity no. 4
Direction. Compute for the following. Show your solutions neatly and encircle your final answer.
1) What is the current obtained in a 2.5 kΩ resistor with an applied voltage of 10 v?
2) Find the resistance of a material if it generates a 25 v charge through a 35 mA of current.
3) Find the power generated on a 54.4 M Ω block resistor having a potential of 240 kV of charge.
4) What is the voltage value measured in a 10 Ω fixed resistor when a current of 27µA was applied.
5) (a) Find the appropriate resistor that will paced on a circuit if it requires to provide a 12 v voltage drop
through a 2.65 mA current. (b) What wattage rating must be considered if the available wattage
ratings in the market are 25 mW, 50 mW, 75 mW, and 100 mW?
For items 6-8:
An 100 k Ω variable resistor has an adjustable knob that can be turned from 0-180° vice-versa. It draws a
current of 0 A when the pointer is in 180° position, and when fully turned clockwise, the current is
measured 2.5 mA. It is known that the voltage applied is 250 V. Find the value of the following:
6) Find the current at 90° position.
7) What is the voltage that can be measured at 135°, if the current is not dropping, that is, 2.5 mA?
8) What is the current that can be measured at 45°, if the voltage is not dropping, that is, 250 V?

Module 5
Module 6: SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTIONS
Overview
A series circuit is any circuit that provides only one path for current flow. Since there is only one path
for electrons to follow, the current, I , must be the same in all parts of a series circuit. To solve for the
values of voltage, current, or resistance in a series circuit, we can apply Ohm’s law. On the other
hand, a parallel circuit is any circuit that provides one common voltage across all components. Each
component across the voltage source provides a separate path or branch for current flow. The total
current, IT , supplied by the applied voltage, must equal the sum of all individual branch currents.

The equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit equals the applied voltage, VA , divided by the total

current, IT . The term equivalent resistance refers to a single resistance that would draw the same
amount of current as all the parallel connected branches. The equivalent resistance of a parallel
circuit is designated REQ Module 6
Objectives

After completing this module, the student should be able to:

1. Obtain total resistance in series.

2. Obtain total resistance in parallel.

3. Apply the two-resistor formula in getting total resistance.

4. Solve for total resistance in series-parallel.

Module 6
Course Materials

A. Resistor in Series
In getting the total resistance of resistors connected in series, it
is expressed mathematically as

RT = R1 + R2 + R3……..+ Rn

B. Resistor in Parallel
In getting the total resistance of resistors connected in parallel, it
is expressed mathematically as

1
RT =
 + + ……..+

Module 6
Course Materials

B.1 2-Resistor in Parallel

In the case that the circuit is so big that computing for total
resistance is so complex, a simple formula can be used for
combining 2 resistors in faster way. The expression can be stated
as

R1×R2
RT = 2-Resistor in Parallel
R1 + R 2
C. Resistors in Series-Parallel
For a circuit with series and parallel combination, it is
conventionally solved from right going to left. Take as am
example the figure on the right. The Total resistance R T can be
solved as
RT = R1 + (R2 || R3) where || means parallel

R2×R3
RT = R1 +
R2 + R3
Module 6
Course Materials
Exercises Let’s try solving the following circuits. Obtain the total Resistance RT.

 
120
1.) 2.)
 
80  
1k  
1k  
2k  
2k
RT RT
 
350  
75

 
200
1 1
RT = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + R 4 + R 5 RT = =
= 80 + 120 + 75 + 200 + 350  + + +  + + +
  = 825
1
=
0.001 + 0.001 + 0.0005 + 0.0005
 RT = 333.33

Module 6
Course Materials
Exercises (cont.)

3) RT = (R1 +|| R2) + (R3 || R4)

  = (1000 || 250) + (350|| 200)
Let
1000×250
 Ra = (1000 || 250 =   = 200
1000 + 250 RT
350×200
 Rb = (350 || 200 =   = 127.27
350 + 200

Then,

RT = Ra + Rb
  = 200 + 127.27
 RT = 327.27

Module 6
Course Materials
D. Videos to watch:
1. Easy Calculator Method for Finding Total Resistance in a Parallel Circuits
- Quick way to solve resistance via calculator
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UcSv5Xm8BMc

2. Equivalent Resistance of Complex Ckts: Resistors In Series - Parallel Combinations

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kjW4H3fKi8o
Read:
3. Resistors in Series, Resistors in Parallel
- Chapter 4, Grob’s Basic Electronics, 11th Edition

Reference book:
- Grob’s Basic Electronics, 11th Edition, By Mitchel E. Schultz, Western Technical College, 2010

Module 6
Activity no.5
Direction. Compute for the total Resistance RT seen between points A and B. Show your solutions neatly
and encircle your final answer.  
R2 2.5  
R5 2.5
A
A (2) R1 (3)
 
R2 1 R3
 1  2 R1 R4 R6
R5  5
R1 R3 R4  5  5
(1)    
4
1  3  3 A
R2 R4
 2  3
R3  2.5 R7  2.5
B B
B
 
R2 2
(5)
(4) R1 R3 R6
 
3.5  6
 
2
R3  4
R4 R5
 3 A  
7
R1 R2 R4 R7
 5  
5.5  9  
4
B Module 6
Module 7: CURRENT AND VOLTAGE DIVIDER
Overview
Any series circuit is a voltage divider in which the individual resistor voltage drops are proportional
to the series resistance values. Similarly, any parallel circuit is a current divider in which the
individual branch currents are inversely proportional to the branch resistance values. When parallel-
connected loads are added to a series circuit, the circuit becomes a loaded voltage divider. Actually,
a loaded voltage divider is just a practical application of a series-parallel circuit. In a series circuit, it
is possible to find the individual resistor voltage drops without knowing the series current. Likewise,
it is possible to find the individual branch currents in a parallel circuit without knowing the value of
the applied voltage. In this module, we will learn how to solve for the voltages in a series circuit and
the currents in a parallel circuit using special formulas that provide shortcuts in the calculations.

Module 7
Objectives

After completing this module, the student should be able to:

1. Calculate the voltage drops using voltage divider formula

2. Compute for current drop using current divider formula.

3. Calculate the voltage and current drops with two-resistor load design.

4. Summarize the current-voltage characteristics in series and in parallel connections.

Module 7
Course Materials
A Voltage Divider

A.1 Voltage Drop in Series using Voltage Divider

  finding a certain voltage drop of a resistor in series
In
connection, we need to get the total resistance and total voltage
supplied(e.g. the voltage source itself). For example in figure (a),
Let the voltage across R1 3k be
R1 Also
V1 = V T × VT = V1 + V2 + V3 = 9v (a)
R1 + R 2 + R 3
 3k
V1 = 9v × = 1.5v
 3k + 10k + 5k
A.2 Voltage Drop in Parallel
If the connection of the resistors were in parallel as shown in
figure (b), the voltage drop across each resistor is simply the
same as the total voltage (e.g. the voltage source). It can be
simply stated as
(b)
VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = 9v
Module 7
Course Materials
B Current Divider

B.1 Current Drop in Series

Using the same figure (a) where resistors are connected in
series, the current iR1 is the same with the total current iT.
Through ohm’s law we can obtain iT as
iT
VT 9v
iT = = = 0.5mA
R 1 + R2 + R 3   + 10k + 5k
3k

Similarly, (a)
iT = iR1 = iR2 = iR3 = 0.5mA

Module 7
Course Materials iT is
B.2 Current Drop in Parallel using Current Divider
If the connection of the resistors were in parallel as shown in
i2 i3
figure (b), the total current iT is the sum of all the currents that
i1
went across each resistor(i.e. R1 ,R2 , and R3 ). Lets analyze the
given and express the following current drop.
VT VT
Let iT = iR1 + iR2 + iR3 iT = =
RT R1 ||R2 || R3
= iR1 + is
where
is = iR2 + iR3 (b)
In finding the current iR1 :
In solving iT : Rs
VT iR1 = iT × where: Rs = R2||R3
iT = R1 + R s
R1 ||R2 || R3 Rs  
2k||1k
iR1 = iT × = 14.4mA ×
9v R1 + R s  + (2k||1k
=
 10k||2k||1k  0.67k
14.4mA ×
9v  10 .67 k Ω
= = 14.4mA
 6 = 0.8997mA or 899.7µA
Module 7
Course Materials
C Summary for Voltage-Current Relationships in Series and in Parallel
Below is the summary for voltage-current relationships of both series and parallel resistor connections.

Series Parallel
Voltage VT = V1 + V2 + V3 …. + Vn VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = Vn
Current iT = iR1 = iR2 = iR3 = iRn iT = i1 + i2 + i3 … + in

Module 7
Course Materials
D. Videos to watch:
1. Voltage Divider Explained
- Video on how voltage divider works
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JGXdi7XcQi8
2. Current Divider Explained
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PpfOH_uBKCw
Read:
3. Voltage and Current Divider in Series-Parallel Circuits
- Chapter 4, Grob’s Basic Electronics, 11th Edition

Reference book:
- Grob’s Basic Electronics, 11th Edition, By Mitchel E. Schultz, Western Technical College, 2010

Module 7
Activity no. 6
Direction. Solve for the following. You may round-off your answers up to
2 decimal places. Do not forget to include each unit and prefixes if
needed. Show your solutions neatly and encircle your final answer.

 1. A 100 R1 is in series with a 200R2 and a 300R3 . The

source voltage Vs is 18 V. Calculate VR1 , VR2 , and VR3
(a)
2. A 10kR1 is in series with a 12kR2 , a 4.7kR3 , and a
3.3kR4, respectively. The applied voltage VT is 36 V.
Calculate V1 , V2 , V3 , and V4.
3. In fig. (a), solve for iR1 and iR2.
4. Using fig. (a), change IT = 5mA, R1 = 1k and R2 = 3k . Solve
for iR1 and iR2.
5. In fig. (b), solve for iR1 , iR2 and iR3.
6. Using fig. (a), change IT = 50mA, R1 = 1k, and R2 = 4k , and
R3 = 5k . Solve for iR1 , iR2 and iR3.
(b)

Module 7
Module 8: KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
Overview
Many types of circuits have components that are not in series, in parallel, or in series-parallel. For example, a
circuit may have two voltages applied in different branches. When the rules of series and parallel circuits cannot
be applied, more general methods of analysis become necessary. These methods include the application of
Kirchhoff’s laws, and we will discuss it in this module. All circuits can be solved by Kirchhoff’s laws because the
laws do not depend on series or parallel connections. Although Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws were
introduced briefly in the previous module, this module takes a more in-depth approach to using Kirchhoff’s laws
for circuit analysis. Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws were stated in 1847 by the German physicist Gustav R.
Kirchhoff. With the familiarization of these laws, we can easily manipulate circuit designs and analyze
systematically any given circuit, even with multiple sources and inputs.

Module 8
Objectives

After completing this module, the student should be able to:

1. State Kirchhoff’s current law.

2. State Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

3. Apply both KVL and KCL in a given circuit containing single source.

4. Use the method of branch currents to solve for all voltages and currents in a circuit containing two

or more voltage sources in different branches.

5. Use the method of mesh currents to solve for the unknown voltages and currents in a circuit

containing two or more voltage sources in different branches.

Module 8
Course Materials
Kirchhoff’s Law
Kirchhoff has stated two laws for current and voltage respectively. The first is the
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) and the second is the Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).
Both laws apply different techniques and procedure in obtaining values on a given
circuit. The laws are stated below.

• KVL: The algebraic sum of the voltage sources and IR voltage drops in

any closed path must total zero.

• KCL: At any point in a circuit, the algebraic sum of the currents directed

into and out of a point must total zero.

Module 8
Course Materials
A. Kirchhoff’s Current Law
The algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving any point in a circuit must
equal zero. Or stated another way, the algebraic sum of the currents into any point
of the circuit must equal the algebraic sum of the currents out of that point.

In using Kirchhoff’s laws to solve circuits, it is necessary

to adopt conventions that determine the algebraic
signs for current and voltage terms. A convenient
system for currents is to consider all currents into a
branch point as positive and all currents directed away
from that point as negative. Take the figure on the
right. We can express the currents be

IA + IB - IC = 0

5A + 3A - 8A = 0

Module 8
Course Materials
A. KCL (cont.)
For a circuit application, refer to point C at the top
of the diagram (a). The IT of 6A into point C divides
into the I3 = 2A and I4–5 =4A, both directed out.
Note that I4–5 is the current through R4 and R5 .
The algebraic equation is

IT - I3 - I4–5 = 0

Substituting the values for these currents,

6A - 2A - 4A = 0
For the opposite directions, refer to point D at the
bottom diagram. Here the branch currents into D
combine to equal the main-line current IT returning (a)
to the voltage source. Now IT is directed out from D
with I3 and I4–5 directed in. The algebraic equation is
I3 + I4–5 - IT = 0
2A + 4A – 6A = 0

Module 8
Course Materials
B. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Before we define what really KVL is, let us discuss the definition of loop. Any
closed path is called a loop . A loop equation specifies the voltages around the
loop.
The KVL
The algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed
path is zero. If you start from any point at one
potential and come back to the same point and the
same potential, the difference of potential must be
zero. In determining the algebraic signs for voltage
terms in a KVL equation, first mark the polarity of
each voltage as shown in figure. A convenient system
is to go around any closed path and consider any
voltage whose negative terminal is reached first as a
negative term and any voltage whose positive
terminal is reached first as a positive term. The
direction can be clockwise or counterclockwise.

Module 8
Course Materials
A. KVL (cont.) loop 3
Referring to the same circuit (a), The VT of 240v
supplies the whole circuitry. Take note of the
polarities of each resistor. We can express the KVL
in loop 1

VT - VR1 – VR3 – VR2 = 0 loop 2

loop 1
Substituting the values for these voltage drops,

240v – 30v – 120v – 90v = 0

We can also expressed loop 2 as

VR3 – VR4 – VR5 = 0

120v – 40v – 80v = 0 (a)

And finally loop 3 as
Note: The sum of all load voltages(voltage
VT - VR1 - VR4 - VR5 - VR2 = 0 across each resistors) on a loop should always be
equal to the supplied voltage in that loop.
240v – 30v – 40v – 80v – 90v = 0
Module 8
Course Materials Module 8

1st Application: METHOD OF BRANCH CURRENTS

Applying KVL and KCL, Let us solve the current

values using the method of branch currents.

(A) Write first the KVL loop equations.

For loop 1 (ACDB clockwise) :
84v – VR1 – VR3 = 0 (1)
For loop 2 (ECDF counterclockwise) :
21v – VR2 – VR3 = 0 (2)
(B) Using Ohm’s law we can state that:
(D) Simplifying and transposing all constant/s on the right side gives us:
VR1 = I1 R1 = 12I1
-18I1 – 6I2 = -84
VR2 = I2 R2 = 3I2
-6I1 - 9I2 = -21
VR3 = (I1 + I2) R3 = 6(I1 + I2)
(E) Reducing both equations and normalize to remove
(C) Now apply these to (1) and (2):
negative sign:
84v – 12I1 – 6(I1 + I2) = 0 3I1 + I2 = 14 (3)
21v – 3I2 – 6(I1 + I2) = 0 2I1 + 3I2 = 7 (4)
Course Materials
Application (cont.)
Now we need to use the process of elimination. In solving two unknowns, we find a way of eliminating one of the
unknowns (in this case we choose I2) so we can obtain the other. To do that, we multiply equations (3) by 3 so
we can eliminate I2.
Subtract the bottom equation Then,
from the top equation
(3) [3I1 + I2 = 14] × 3 9I1 + 3I2 = 42 9I1 + 3I2 = 42 7I1 35
(4) 2I1 + 3I2 = 7 2I1 + 3I2 = 7 - 2I1 + 3I2 = 7 7
=
7
I1 = 5A
7I1 = 35
Using (4) , we can obtain I2 We can use KCL and Figure (a) point C
for obtaining I3
2I1 + 3I2 = 7 Summarizing:
2(5) + 3I2 = 7 I1 + I2 = I3 I1 = 5A *A negative current
5A – 1A = I3 means the initial
I2 = 7 - 10 = - 1A I2 = -1A* assumption of
3 4A = I3 current direction is
I3 = 4A
opposite.

Module 8
Course Materials Module 8
2nd Application: NODE-VOLTAGE ANALYSIS

Applying KVL and KCL, Let us obtain VN using

the node-voltage analysis.
loop 1 loop 2
(A) State the current equation at node N.

I1 + I2 = I3 or   += (1)

At loop 1, we can say that,

84 – VR1 – VN = 0
84 – VN = VR1 (2)
At loop 2, we can say that,
21 – VR2 – VN = 0 (D) Simplifying it by transposing all terms with VN on one side and all
21 – VN = VR2 (3) constant to the other:
(B) Now rewrite (1) through values of (2) and (3): 84 + 84 = 2VN + 4VN +  VN = VN = 24 V
168= 7VN
  += (4)
(E) To obtain VR1 & VR2 simply use (2) and (3):
(C) Clear the fractions in (4) by multiplying the 84 – VN = VR1 21 – VN = VR2
whole equation with 12: 84 – 24 = VR1 = 60 V 21 – 24 = VR2 = - 60 V*
(84 – VN) + 4(21 – VN) = 2VN * Just the same, a negative value means wrong direction of current,
or in this case, a reversed polarity of voltage supply of V 2 (21 V).
Course Materials
D. Videos to watch:
1. What is KVL and KCL?
- Simplest Explanation of KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZDoyIghUI44
2. How to Solve Basic Circuit Problem using Kirchhoff’s Law
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z2QDXjG2ynU
3. Mesh Analysis Sample Problem
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ntRQEvnhigk
Read:
4. Voltage and Current Divider in Series-Parallel Circuits
- Chapter 9, Kirchhoff’s Law, Grob’s Basic Electronics, 11th Edition

Reference book:
- Grob’s Basic Electronics, 11th Edition, By Mitchel E. Schultz, Western Technical College, 2010

Module 8
Activity no. 7 Module 8

Direction. Solve for the following. You may round-off your answers up to 2 decimal places. Do not forget to
include each unit and prefixes if needed. Show your solutions neatly and encircle your final answer.

Fig. (A)

In fig. (B), solve for VN or the voltage at

node N using node-voltage analysis.

Fig. (B)
In fig. (A), solve for IR3 that runs in R3 using
method of mesh currents.
Module 9: NETWORK THEOREMS – THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Overview
A network is a combination of components, such as resistances and voltage sources, interconnected
to achieve a particular end result. However, networks generally need more than the rules of series
and parallel circuits for analysis. Kirchhoff’s laws can always be applied for any circuit connections.
The network theorems, though, usually provide shorter methods for solving a circuit. Some
theorems enable us to convert a network into a simpler circuit, equivalent to the original. Then the
equivalent circuit can be solved by the rules of series and parallel circuits. Other theorems enable us
to convert a given circuit into a form that permits easier solutions. Only the applications are given
here, although all network theorems can be derived from Kirchhoff’s laws. As for there are lots of
network theorems existing in the field of electronics engineering, we will discuss the few most
common yet very useful theorems such as Thevenin, Norton’s, Millman’s, and Delta-to-Wye (Δ - Υ)
Module 9
Resistance conversions.
Objectives

After completing this module, the student should be able to:

1. Determine the Thevenin’s theorem and its equivalent circuit with respect to any pair

of terminals in a complex network.

2. Apply Thevenin’s theorem in solving for an unknown voltage or current.

Module 9
Course Materials
Thevenin’s Theorem
Named after M. L. Thevenin, a French engineer, Thevenin’s theorem is very useful in simplifying the
process of solving for the unknown values of voltage and current in a network. By Thevenin’s theorem,
many sources and components, no matter how they are interconnected, can be represented by an
equivalent series circuit with respect to any pair of terminals in the network.

In fig (a), imagine that the block at the left contains a

network connected to terminals A and B. Thevenin’s
theorem states that the entire network connected to A and
B can be replaced by a single voltage source VTH in series
with a single resistance RTH , connected to the same two
terminals. Voltage VTH is the open-circuit voltage across (a)
terminals A and B. This means finding the voltage that the
network produces across the two terminals with an open
circuit between A and B. The polarity of VTH is such that it will produce current from A to B in the same direction as in
the original network. Resistance RTH is the open-circuit resistance across terminals A and B, but with all sources killed.
This means finding the resistance looking back into the network from terminals A and B. Although the terminals are
open, an ohmmeter across AB would read the value of RTH as the resistance of the remaining paths in the network
without any sources operating.
Module 9
Course Materials
A. Thevenizing a Circuit

Find the voltage in figure (a) across load resistor RL.

I3 + I4–5 - IT = 0

(a)
Step 1. From (b) cut the resistor RL
from a then obtain the voltage across RL is taken away to
R2 using voltage divider since its measure voltage across R2.
directly parallel to RL.
R2
VR2 = VT ×
R 1 + R2
6
VR2 = 36 × = 24v
3+6
(b)
VR2 = VTH 24v =
Module 9
Course Materials
Thevenizing a Circuit (cont.)
RL still
Step 2. Now short the voltage source as removed to
seen in (c) then obtain the measure
resistance at points A and B where RL is resistance at
points A and
originally connected.
B.
RAB = R1 || R2
(c)
RAB = R1×R2 = 3 × 6 = 2Ω
R1 + R2 3+6
RAB = RTH = 2Ω
Step 3. Finally combine VTH and RTH as
shown in (d). Then reconnect
the load RL at points A and B [see (e) ]
then simply get the voltage using
voltage divider.
RL (d) (e)
2
VL = VTH × = 24 × = 12v
RTH + RL 2+2
VL = 12v
Module 9
Activity no. 8
Direction. Solve for the following using Thevenin’s Theorem. You may round-off your answers up to 2
decimal places. Do not forget to include each unit and prefixes if needed. Show your solutions neatly and
encircle your final answer.

(B)
(A)

Solve for the voltage VL across Solve for the voltage VL across
points A and B if RL is 2 kΩ. points A and B if RL is 15 Ω.

Module 9
Module 10: NETWORK THEOREMS – NORTON’S THEOREM

Overview
Named after E. L. Norton, a scientist with Bell Telephone Laboratories, Norton’s theorem is used to
simplify a network in terms of currents instead of voltages. In many cases, analyzing the division of
currents may be easier than voltage analysis. For current analysis, therefore, Norton’s theorem can
be used to reduce a network to a simple parallel circuit with a current source. The idea of a current
source is that it supplies a total line current to be divided among parallel branches, corresponding to
a voltage source applying a total voltage to be divided among series components.

Module 10
Objectives

After completing this module, the student should be able to:

1. Determine the Norton’s theorem and its equivalent circuit with respect to any pair of

terminals in a complex network.

2. Apply Norton’s theorem in solving for an unknown voltage or current.

Module 10
Course Materials
Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem is similar to Thevenin’s in concept, but as Norton proposed that the idea of a current
source is that it supplies a total line current to be divided among parallel branches, corresponding to a
voltage source applying a total voltage to be divided among series components.

(a) Network with points A and B (b) Norton ckt. Equivalent with IN and RN

Module 10
Course Materials
A. Nortonizing a Circuit
Using the same sample problem from the previous module(fig. a), to “Nortonize” a circuit simply short the
load (being RL at fig b) to measure the current IN. Here the current measured is 12A.

Module 10
Course Materials
Nortonizing a Circuit(cont.)
Next step is shorten the voltage source(fig. d) to measure the resistance at points A and B. Here R AB is
measured 2Ω. Then combine IN and RAB in parallel as shown in (e), and finally reconnect the load R L (see
fig. f) and use current divider formula to obtain the current at RL.

Finally, to find VL, use Ohm’s law: VL = IL × RL = 6 × 2 = 12v

Module 10
Course Materials
B. Thevenin – Norton Relationship
It’s cool to see that we can directly convert Thevenin into Norton equivalent circuits; vice-versa. See a
Thevenin ckt. in (a), simply apply Ohm’s law to get the current then we may directly redraw a Norton
equivalent as shown in (b). Also observe that both Thevenin and Norton Theorems obtain same resistance
in principle i.e. RTH = RN.

Module 10
Activity no. 9
Direction. Solve for the following using Norton’s Theorem. You may round-off your answers up to 2
decimal places. Do not forget to include each unit and prefixes if needed. Show your solutions neatly and
encircle your final answer.

(B)
(A)

Solve for the voltage VL across Solve for the voltage VL across
points A and B if RL is 2 kΩ. points A and B if RL is 15 Ω.

Module 10
Module 11: NETWORK THEOREMS – MILLMAN’S THEOREM

Overview
Another network theorem that is popular was made by Jacob Millman, which is the Millman’s
Theorem. The theorem is a method to simplify the solution of a circuit with one condition; the
branches should be all in parallel, meaning there are limitations when it comes to this theorem. But
nevertheless, the theorem and application can be applied for some circuit designs. One advantage
that the Millman’s theorem has compared to other network theorems is that we can derive the
needed voltage drop right away, that is, we no longer need to convert the circuitry into another
model.

Module 11
Objectives

After completing this module, the student should be able to:

1. Define the Millman’s theorem and the required/qualified circuit that it can be applied.

2. Analyze and solve voltage/current drops using Millman’s theorem.

Module 11
Course Materials
Millman’s Theorem
Consider an example given in the figure (a). For all
branches, the ends at point Y are connected to
chassis ground. Furthermore, the opposite ends
of all branches are also connected to the common
point X. The voltage VXY , therefore, is the
common voltage across all branches. Finding the
value of VXY gives the net effect of all sources in
determining the voltage at X with respect to
chassis ground. To calculate this voltage,
𝑉  1 𝑉  2 𝑉  3
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 Placing the given values (a)
VXY =  1 +  1 +  1
based from figure (a) :
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3   + 0 
32 8 
4 2 - 4 8+ 0 - 2
VXY = 1  1  1  = = 6v
+ 2 + 4 1
4

Module 11
Activity no.10
Direction. Solve for voltage VXY using Millman’s Theorem. You may round-off your answers up to 2 decimal
places. Do not forget to include each unit and prefixes if needed. Show your solutions neatly and encircle
your final answer.
(A) (B)

Module 11
Module 12: DELTA-to-WYE (Δ – Υ) CONVERSION
Overview
The Delta-Wye (Δ – Υ) transformation is an extra technique for transforming certain resistor
combinations that cannot be handled by the series and parallel equations. This is also referred to as
a PI-T (π – T) transformations. You can expect to encounter delta (Δ) and wye (Y) networks when
studying circuits involving three-phase ac power. As for some circuit designs are very complex, even
the Kirchhoff’s and network theorems cannot be applied right away. Take note that this conversion
techniques can only be applied on resistors/impedance on every given circuit.

Module 12
Objectives

After completing this module, the student should be able to:

1. Define Delta-Wye (Δ – Υ) transformations and vice versa.

2. Recite the formula for each conversion.

3. Perform some circuit conversions applying the Delta-Wye (Δ – Υ) and Wye-Delta

(Υ - Δ) transformations.

Module 12
Course Materials
A. The Wye Form (Υ)
Check the form of a wye connection in fig (a).
1 1
Take note that in wye connection there is one
common node (node 1 in example) and 3 outer
wires (i.e. A, B, and C) to connect the wye to a
circuit.
(a) A form of wye (Υ) connection

B. The Delta Form (Δ)

Check the form of a delta connection in fig (b).
Take note that in delta connection there are 3
nodes(node 1, 2, and 3), thus forming like a shape
of a triangle.
(b) A form of delta (Δ) connection

Module 12
Course Materials
C. Conversion Formulas
C.1 Delta-Wye (Δ – Υ) conversion formula:

C.2 Wye-Delta (Υ – Δ) conversion formula:

(a) The Delta(Δ) and Wye (Υ) conversion form

Module 12
Course Materials
C. Conversion Formulas(cont.)
Let us try solving and example in figure (a). Find R1 using
Delta-Wye conversion and RB using Wye-Delta conversion
formulas.
For R1 :
RB R C (6)(10)
R1 = =
RA + RB + RC 4 + 6 + 10
60
= = 3Ω
20
For RB :
R1R2 + R2R3 + R1R3 (3)(2) + (2)(1.2) + (3)(1.2)
RB = =
R2 2
6 + 2.4 + 3.6 (a) The Delta(Δ) and Wye (Υ) conversion form
=
2
12
= = 6Ω
2
Module 12
Activity no.11
Direction. Solve for the following. You may round-off your answers up to 2 decimal places. Do not forget to
include each unit and prefixes if needed. Show your solutions neatly and encircle your final answer.

1. Convert (Δ – Υ) in figure (A) by redrawing 2. Convert (Υ – Δ) figure (B) by redrawing the ckt.
the ckt. and get the values of R1, R2, and R3. and get the values of RA, RB, and RC.

(B)
(A)

Module 12