METROLOGY

BY
A.RADHA KRISHNA,
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, HOD
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MANDAVA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
Contents

Introduction
Tolerances
Classificationof tolerance
Interchangeability
Selective assembly
Maximum and minimum metal conditions
Fits
Tolerance grade
General terminology
Hole basis and shaft basis systems
Numerical examples
INTRODUCTION
 No two parts can be produced with identical
measurements by any

manufacturing process.

 In any production process, regardless of how well it is

designed or how carefully it is maintained, a certain

amount of variation (natural) will always exist.

INTRODOCTION

Variations arises from;

• Improperly adjusted machines

• Operator error

• Tool wear

• Defective raw materials etc.

Such variations are referred as ‘assignable causes’ and can be identified

and controlled.
INTRODUCTION
 It is impossible to produce a part to an exact size
orbasic size, some

variations, known as tolerances, need to be allowed.

 The permissible level of tolerance

depends on the functional requirements,

which cannot be compromised.

• No component can be manufactured precisely to a given dimension; it can only

be made to lie between two limits, upper (maximum) and lower (minimum).

• Designer has to suggest these tolerance limits to ensure satisfactory operation.

• The difference between the upper and lower limits is termed

permissive

tolerance.
UCTION
Example

Shaft has to be manufactured to a diameter of 40 ± 0.02 mm.

The shaft has a basic size of 40 mm.

It will be acceptable if its diameter lies between the limits of sizes.

Upper limit of 40+0.02 = 40.02 mm

Lower limit of 40-0.02 = 39.98 mm.

Then, permissive tolerance is equal to 40.02 − 39.98 = 0.04 mm.

Tolerances

• To satisfy the ever-increasing demand for accuracy.

• Parts have to be produced with less dimensional variation.

• It is essential for the manufacturer to have an in-depth knowledge of

the tolerances to manufacture parts economically, adhere to quality and reliability

• To achieve an increased compatibility between mating parts.

Tolerances

• The algebraic difference between the upper and lower acceptable dimensions.

• It is an absolute value.

• The basic purpose of providing tolerances is to permit dimensional variations in

the manufacture of components, adhering to the performance criterion.

Manufacturing Cost and Work Tolerance

Tolerance is a trade-off between the economical

production and the accuracy required for proper

functioning of the product.

Relationship between work tolerance and manufacturing cost

Tolerances
Classification of Tolerance

1. Unilateral tolerance

2. Bilateral tolerance

3. Compound tolerance

4. Geometric tolerance
Classification of Tolerance
1. Unilateral tolerance

• When the tolerance distribution is only on one side of the basic size.
Either positive or negative, but not both.

Tolerances (a) Unilateral (b) Bilateral

1. Unilateral tolerance: Below
zero line: Negative
1. Unilateral tolerance: Above
zero line: Positive
tolerance
When the tolerance distribution lies on either side of the basic size.

• It is not necessary that Zero line will divide the tolerance zone equally on both sides.
• It may be equal or unequal
Classification
of Tolerance

3. Compound tolerance

Tolerance for the dimension R is

determined by the combined effects of

tolerance on 40 mm dimension, on 60o, and

on 20 mm dimension
Classification
of Tolerance
4. Geometric tolerance

Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) is a method of defining

parts based on how they function, using standard symbols.

Classification
of Tolerance
4. Geometric tolerance

• Diameters of the cylinders need be concentric with each other.

• For proper fit between the two cylinders, both the centres to be in line.
• This information is represented in the feature control frame.
• Feature control frame comprises three boxes.
of Tolerance
4. Geometric tolerance

• First box: On the left indicates the feature to be controlled,

represented symbolically (example: concentricity).
• Centre box: indicates distance between the two cylinders, centres cannot be
apart by more than 0.01 mm (Tolerance).
• Third box: Indicates that the datum is with X.
geometric tolerances
geometric tolerances
geometric tolerances
geability
• Manufacturing a large number of parts, it is not economical to produce both
the

mating parts by the same operator.

• Parts to be manufactured within min. possible time without compromising on quality.

• To manufacture identical parts; mass production was the idea.

• The components are manufactured in one or more batches by different persons on

different machines at different locations and are assembled at one place.

geability

Interchangeability: Any one component selected at random should assemble

with any other arbitrarily chosen mating component.

Condition

Identical components, manufactured by different operators, using different

machine tools and under different environmental conditions, can be assembled

and replaced without any further modification during the assembly, without

affecting the functioning of the component when assembled.

Selective
Assembly

• In selective assembly the parts produced are classified into groups according to

their size / dimensions by automatic gauging.

• Both the mating parts are segregated according to their sizes, and matched with

the groups of mating parts are assembled.

• This ensures protection and elimination of defective assemblies.

• Assay. costs are reduced, as the parts are produced with wider tolerances.
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM
METAL CONDITIONS
Consider a shaft having a dimension of 40 ± 0.05 mm and Hole having a dimension of 45 ± 0.05
mm.

For Shaft
Maximum metal limit (MML) = 40.05 mm
Least metal limit (LML) = 39.95 mm

For Hole
Maximum metal limit (MML) = 44.95 mm
Least metal limit (LML) = 45.05 mm
FIT
S

• The degree of tightness and or looseness between the two mating parts.

Three basic types of fits can be identified, depending on the actual limits of the
hole or shaft.

1. Clearance fit

2. Interference fit

3. Transition fit
TS
1. Clearance fit Upper limit of shaft is less than the lower limit of the hole.

The largest permissible dia. of the shaft is smaller than the dia. of the smallest hole.
E.g.: Shaft rotating in a bush
FI
TS
2. Interference fit Upper limit of the hole is less than the lower limit of shaft.

• No gap between the faces and intersecting of material will

occur.
• Shaft need additional force to fit into the hole.
3. Transition fit
Dia. of the largest permissible hole is greater than the dia. of the smallest shaft.

• Neither loose nor tight like clearance fit and interference fit.
• Tolerance zones of the shaft and the hole will be overlapped between the interference and
clearance fits.
FI
TS
Detailed classification of Fits
FI
TS
Applications
FI
TS
Applications
FI
TS
Application of Fits
• Tolerance grades indicates the degree of accuracy of manufacture.

• IS: 18 grades of fundamental tolerances are available.

• Designated by the letters IT followed by a number.

• The ISO system provides tolerance grades from IT01, IT0, and IT1 to IT16.

• Tolerance values corresponding to grades IT5 – IT16 are determined using the

standard tolerance unit (i, in μm), which is a function of basic size.

Tolerance Grade
• D= diameter of the part in mm.

• 0.001D = Linear factor counteracts the effect of measuring inaccuracies.

• Value of tolerance unit ‘i ’ is obtained for sizes up to 500 mm.

• D is the geometric mean of the lower and upper diameters.

• D=
Tolerance Grade
Standard tolerance units

Tolerance Grade
Tolerances grades
for applications
y
Terminolog
y

• Basic size: Exact theoretical size arrived at by design. Also called as nominal size.

• Actual size: Size of a part as found by measurement

• Zero Line: Straight line corresponding to the basic size. Deviations are measured

from this line.

• Limits of size: Maximum and minimum permissible sizes for a specific dimension.

• Tolerance: Difference between the maximum and minimum limits of size.

• Allowance: LLH –HLS

y
• Deviation: Algebraic difference between a size and its corresponding basic size.

It may be positive, negative, or zero.

• Upper deviation: Algebraic difference between the maximum limit of size and

its corresponding basic size.

Designated as ‘ES’ for a hole and as ‘es’ for a shaft.

• Lower deviation: Algebraic difference between the minimum limit of size and

its corresponding basic size.

Designated as ‘EI’ for a hole and as ‘ei’ for a shaft.

y

• Actual deviation: Algebraic difference between the actual size and

its

corresponding basic size.

• Tolerance Zone: Zone between the maximum and minimum limit size.
Hole Basis and Shaft Basis Systems

• To obtain the desired class of fits, either the size of the hole or the size of the
shaft must vary.

Two types of systems are used to represent three basic types of fits, clearance,

interference, and transition fits.

(a) Hole basis system

(b) Shaft basis system.

Hole Basis
systems

• The size of the hole is kept constant and the shaft size is varied to
give

various types of fits.

• Lower deviation of the hole is zero, i.e. the lower limit of the hole is same as

the basic size.

• Two limits of the shaft and the higher dimension of the hole are varied

to obtain the desired type of fit.

systems

(a) Clearance fit (b) Transition fit (c) Interference fit

Hole Basis
systems

This system is widely adopted in industries, easier to manufacture shafts

of

varying sizes to the required tolerances.

Standard-size plug gauges are used to check hole sizes accurately.

systems

• The size of the shaft is kept constant and the hole size is varied to
obtain

various types of fits.

• Fundamental deviation or the upper deviation of the shaft is zero.

• System is not preferred in industries, as it requires more number of standard-

size tools, like reamers, broaches, and gauges, increases manufacturing and

inspection costs.
systems

(a) Clearance fit (b) Transition fit (c) Interference fit

Examples
1. In a limit system, the following limits are specified for a hole and shaft assembly:
Solu
tion
Examples

2. The following limits are specified in a limit system, to give a clearance fit between
a hole and a shaft:
Solu
tion
Examples
3. Tolerances for a hole and shaft assembly having a nominal size of 50 mm are as
follows:
Solu
tion
Solu
tion

(e) Since both maximum and minimum clearances are positive, it can be conclude
that the given pair has a clearance fit.
symbols

Used to specify the tolerance and fits for mating components.

Example: Consider the designation 40 H7/d9

• Basic size of the shaft and hole = 40 mm.

• Nature of fit for the hole basis system is designated by H

• Fundamental deviation of the hole is zero.

• Tolerance grade: IT7.

• The shaft has a d-type fit, the fundamental deviation has a negative value.

• IT9 tolerance grade.

symbols

• First eight designations from A (a) to H (h) for holes (shafts) are used
for

clearance fit

• Designations, JS (js) to ZC (zc) for holes (shafts), are used for interference or

transition fits
symbols

• Fundamental Deviation: Deviation either the upper or lower deviation, nearest to the

zero line. (provides the position of the tolerance zone).

It may be positive, negative, or zero.

• Upper deviation: Designated as ‘ES’ for a Hole and as ‘es’ for a shaft.

• Lower deviation: Designated as ‘EI’ for a Hole and as ‘ei’ for a shaft.
• Upper deviation: Designated as ‘ES’ for a Hole and as ‘es’ for a shaft.
• Lower deviation: Designated as ‘EI’ for a Hole and as ‘ei’ for a shaft.

Typical representation of different types of fundamental deviations

(a) Holes (internal features) (b) Shafts (external features)
Fundamental deviation for
shafts and holes of sizes
from above 500 to 3150 mm
• BIS: 18 grades of fundamental tolerances are available.

• Designated by the letters IT followed by a number.

• ISO/BIS: IT01, IT0, and IT1 to IT16.

• Tolerance values corresponding to grades IT5 – IT16 are determined using the

standard tolerance unit (i, in μm)

Tolerance Grade
Tolerance unit,

• D= diameter of the part in mm.

• 0.001D = Linear factor counteracts the effect of measuring inaccuracies.

• Value of tolerance unit ‘i ’ is obtained for sizes up to 500 mm.

• D is the geometric mean of the lower and upper diameters.

• D=
Tolerance Grade
D=

The various steps specified for the diameter steps are as follows:

• 1–3, 3–6, 6–10, 10–18, 18–30, 30–50, 50–80, 80–120

• 120–180, 180–250, 250–315, 315–400, 400–500

• 500–630, 630–800, and 800–1000 mm.

Tolerance Grade
Standard tolerance units

Tolerance Grade
Examples

1. Calculate the limits of tolerance and allowance for a 25 mm shaft and hole pair
designated by H8d9.
Solu
tion
25 mm diameter lies in the standard diameter step of 18-30 mm
D= 18 × 30 =23.238
Fundamental tolerance unit = i = 0.453 𝐷 + 0.001D
i= 1.307 μ

For H8 hole

Fundamental tolerance (tolerance grade table) = 25i = 32.5~33μ =0.033 mm

For ‘H’ Hole, fundamental deviation is 0 (from FD Table)

Hence, hole limits are 25 mm and 25+0.033 = 25.033 mm

Hole Tolerance = 25.033 – 25 = 0.033 mm

Solu
tion
25 mm diameter lies in the standard diameter step of 18-30 mm
D= 18 × 30 =23.238
Fundamental tolerance unit = i = 0.453 𝐷 + 0.001D
i= 1.307 μ

For d9 shaft

Fundamental tolerance, (tolerance grade table) = 40i = 40 x 1.3 =52 μ = 0.052 mm

For ‘d’ shaft, fundamental deviation (from FD Table) =−16𝐷0⋅44 = - 0.064 mm Hence,

shaft limits are 25 – 0.064 =24.936 mm and 25 – (0.064+0.052) =24.884 mm

Shaft Tolerance = 24.936 – 24.884 = 0.052 mm

Examples

2. Determine the tolerance on the hole and the shaft for a precision
running fit designated by 50 H7g6.
Given: 1) 50 mm lies between 30- 50 mm
2) i (microns) = 0.45𝐷1/3 + 0.001D
3) Fundamental deviation for ‘H’
hole = 0
4)
5) Fundamental
IT7 = 16i deviation
andfor
IT6‘g’= 10i
shaft = −2.5𝐷0⋅34
State the actual maximum and minimum sizes of the hold and shaft and maximum
and minimum clearance.
Solu
tion
50 mm diameter lies in the standard diameter step of 30-50 mm
D= 30 × 50 = 38.7 mm
Fundamental tolerance unit = i (microns) = 0.45𝐷1/3 + 0.001D = 1.5597 μ

For H7 hole

Fundamental tolerance (tolerance grade table) = 16i = 24.9μ = 0.025 mm

For ‘H’ Hole, fundamental deviation is 0 (from FD Table)

Hence, hole limits are. +0 ⋅ 025 mm

50−0.000
Solu
tion
50 mm diameter lies in the standard diameter step of 30-50 mm
D= 30 × 50 = 38.7 mm
Fundamental tolerance unit = i (microns) = 0.45𝐷1/3 + 0.001D = 1.5597 μ

For g6 shaft

Fundamental tolerance (tolerance grade table) = 10i = 16μ = 0.016 mm

For ‘g’ shaft, fundamental deviation is −2.5𝐷0⋅34 =9μ

Hence, shaft limits are. −0 ⋅ 009 mm

50−0.025

Hole Tolerance = 25.033 – 25 = 0.033 mm

Solu
tion
Maximum clearance = 50.025 - 49.975 = 0.05
mm
Minimum clearance = 50.000 - 49.991 = 0.009