MODULE IV-Single Phase Transformers

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➢ Principle:
• A transformer is a static piece of apparatus which
increases or decreases the voltage in a circuit with a
corresponding decrease or increase in current
• If a transformer is used to increase the voltage, it is
called a step-up transformer and if it is used to
decrease the voltage ,it is called a step-down
transformer
• Here electric power in one circuit(primary) is
transferred into electric power in another
circuit(secondary) with a change in voltage level but
with same frequency
• The operating principle of a transformer is based on
mutual induction between two circuits linked by a
common magnetic flux.
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Operation
• A transformer essentially consists of two
windings called primary winding and
secondary winding wound on a common
magnetic core as shown in fig.
• The winding connected to the ac source is
called primary winding and the winding
connected to the load is called secondary
winding
• The alternating voltage V1 whose magnitude is
to be changed is applied to the primary
• Then an alternating flux ɸ is set up in the core

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• This alternating flux ɸ links with both the
windings and produces a self induced emf E1
in primary and mutually induced emf E2 in
secondary according to Faraday’s laws of
electromagnetic induction
• E1 =-N1d 
dt

E2 =-N2
E1 depends upon N1 and E2 depends upon N2
where N1 and N2 are the number of turns in
primary and secondary respectively

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• If the secondary circuit is closed through a
load as shown in fig., E2 causes a secondary
current I2 to flow through the load
• This produces a terminal voltage V2 across the
load.
• Thus a transformer transfers ac power from
one circuit to another with a change in voltage
level
• If E2 > E1 or V2 > V1 , it is called a step-up
transformer and if E2 < E1 or V2 < V1 , it is
called a step-down transformer
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• Transformation ratio K= N2 / N1 = E2 / E1 =
V2 / V1 =I1/I2
• For an ideal transformer E1 = V1 and E2 = V2
• For a real transformer E1 = V1 – I1z1 and
E2 = V2 + I2Z2where I1z1 is the voltage drop in
primary and I2Z2 is the voltage drop in
secondary
• In a transformer voltage and current will be
different in primary and secondary, but
power and frequency will be same in both
the windings
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Constructional Details

Fig.(a) Fig.(b)

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• A transformer essentially consists of two coils
primary and secondary wound on a common
magnetic core
• The two coils are insulated from each other and
the core
• Other necessary parts are some suitable
container for assembled core and
windings(transformer tank),a suitable medium
for insulating the core and windings(transformer
oil),suitable bushings made of porcelain for
insulating and bringing out the terminals of
windings from the tank
• The transformer core is laminated to reduce the
eddy current losses and the core is made of si
steel to reduce the hysterisis losses
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• Constructionally the transformers are of two
types
i. Core type transformers
ii. Shell type transformers
• These are distinguished from each other by
the manner in which the primary and
secondary coils are placed around the
laminated core
• In core type transformers the windings
surround a considerable part of the core as
shown in fig.(a) whereas in shell type
transformers the core surrounds a
considerable portion of the windings as
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shown in fig.(b)
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• In actual construction primary and secondary
windings are usually interleaved to reduce the
leakage flux ie; half of primary and half of
secondary are on one limb and remaining
halves are on second limb
• The coils are of cylindrical in shape
• Since the low voltage (L.V.) winding is easier to
insulate it is placed nearest to the core and
then high voltage(H.V.) winding

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E.M.F equation of a transformer

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• Let N1=number of turns in primary,N2=number
of turns in secondary,ɸm=maximum flux in
core in Wb,T=time period,f=frequency of ac
input in Hz.
• As shown in fig.flux increases from 0 to its
maximum value ɸm in one quarter cycle ie;in
T/4 sec.
m
• So average rate of change of flux per turn= T / 4
=4fɸm (T=1/f)
• Now rate of change of flux per turn means
induced emf per turn
• So average emf/turn= 4fɸm (V)
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• If flux ɸ varies sinusoidally then rms value of
induced emf is obtained by multiplying the
average value with form factor
• So rms value of emf/turn= 4fɸm*1.11=4.44fɸm
(V)
• Now rms value of the induced emf in the whole
primary winding=induced emf/turn*number of
turns in primary
So E1= 4.44fN1ɸm…………..(1)
• Similarly rms value of emf induced in secondary
E2=4.44fN2ɸm………………….(2)
• These are the emf equations of a transformer
• Here ɸm=Bm*A, where Bm=maximum flux density
in core,A=area of cross section
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Q)An Ideal transformer has 1000 turns on its
primary and 500 turns on its secondary.The
driving voltage on the primary is 100V and the
load resistance is 5Ω.Calculate V2,I1 and I2
Ans)Transformation ratio
K=N2/N1=500/1000=0.5
V2/V1=I1/ I2, V2=KV1=0.5X100=50(V)
I2 =V2/R2=50/5=10(A)
I1=K I2 =0.5X10=5(A)
Q)An ideal transformer having 90 turns on the
primary and 2250 turns on the secondary is
connected to 200V,50Hz supply.
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• The load across the secondary draws a current
of 2Aat a power factor of 0.8 lagging.Calculate
the value of primary current and the peak
value of flux linked with the scondary
Ans)Transformationratio K=N2/N1=2250/90=25
Primary current I1=KI2=25X2=50(A)
E1=4.44fN1φm,200=4.44X50X90Xφm
Φm=0.01(Wb)

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ɸm=Bm*A

V2=KV1

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Losses in a transformer
• The lossses in a transformer are of two types
1)Core loss or Iron loss
2)Copper loss
1)Core loss:Core loss is the loss occuring in the
core of the transformer.
• It is caused by the alternating flux in the core
and consists of a) Hysterisis loss and b)Eddy
current loss
• Core losses are independent of the load on
the transformer and remain practically
constant from no load to full load
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a)Hysteresis loss:
• Hysteresis loss is due to the reversal of
magnetization in the core and is given by
Hysteresis loss Ph=PBm1.6fV where P is the
hysteresis coefficient whose value depends
upon the material, Bm is the max.flux density,f
is the frequency and V is the volume of the
core material
• Hysteresis loss can be minimized by using a
core of high grade silicon steel

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b)Eddy current loss:
• The alternating flux in the transformer core
produces an emf in the core body because iron is
a good conductor
• This induced emf in the core will set up
circulating currents known as eddy currents
• Eddy currents result in loss of power,with
consequent heating of the core
• The eddy current loss is given by Pe=QBm2f2t2V
Where Q is a constant and t is the thickness of
lamination
• Eddy current loss can be minimized by using core
of thin laminations

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2)Copper loss:Copper loss is the loss occuring in the
windings of the transformer and is due to the
resistance of the transformer windings(both
primary and secondary)
• Total copper losses=I12R1+I22R2 ie;Primary cu
loss+secondary cu loss. Here I1 is the primary
current, R1 is the primary resistance , I2 is the
secondary current and R2 is the secondary
resistance
• Copper losses vary as the square of the load
current.Hence copper losses are called variable
losses
• Total losses in a transformer=Core losses +
Copper losses

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Why transformer rating in kVA
• An important factor in the design and
operation of electrical machines is the relation
between the life of the insulation and
operating temperature of the machine
• Therefore temp.rise resulting from the losses
is a determining factor in the rating of a
machine
• The copper loss in a transformer depends on
current and iron loss depends on voltage

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• Therefore the total loss in a transformer
depends on the volt-ampere product only(VI)
and not on the phase angle between voltage
and current ie; it is independent of load power
factor
• For this reason the rating of a transformer is in
kVA not kW

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Ideal Transformers

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• An ideal transformer is one that has
i. No winding resistance ie;no cu losses
ii. No core losses(eddy current losses and
hysteresis losses)
iii. No leakage flux ie;same flux links both the
windings
• An ideal transformer consists of two purely
inductive coils wound on a loss free core as
shown in fig. Here V1=E1 and V2=E2
• An ideal transformer cannot be physically
realized
• But we can design a practical transformer
whose properties approach very close to an
ideal transformer
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Practical Transformers
(Real Transformers)

Practical Transformer
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• A practical transformer has
i. Winding resistance and hence cu losses
ie;primary cu loss I12R1 and secondary cu loss
I22R2. The primary resistance R1 and
secondary resistance R2 act in series with the
respective windings as shown in fig
ii. Core losses(Hysterisis losses and Eddy
current losses)
iii. Magnetic leakage giving rise to leakage
reactance.

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• The effect of leakage flux can be introduced by
connecting inductive reactance in series with
each winding of ideal transformer. The leakage
flux paths are mainly through air.
• The effect of primary leakage flux ɸ1 is to
introduce an inductive reactance X1 in series
with the primary and the effect of secondary
leakage flux ɸ2 is to introduce an inductive
reactance X2 in series with the secondary as
shown in fig.
• So the actual transformer can be represented
as shown in fig.
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Here primary resistance=R1
Primary reactance=X1
secondary resistance=R2
secondary reactance=X2
Primary impedance=Z1 =R1+jX1
secondary impedance=Z2 =R2+jX2
Primary voltage V1 =E1+I1Z1 = E1+I1(R1+jX1)
secondary voltage V2 =E2-I2Z2 = E2-I2(R2+jX2)
Primary voltage drop=I1Z1
secondary voltage drop=I2Z2
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Different cases to analyse a
transformer
1)Ideal transformer on no load(only magnetizing current
Im )
2)Practical transformer on no load(No load primary
current I0 which consists of Iw and Im)
3)Ideal transformer on load(Primary current is I1 = I2’ =KI2
Practical Transformer on load: There are two cases
4. Practical transformer on load with out winding
resistance and leakage reactance(only core
losses.Primary current is I1 which consists of I0 and I2’
)
5. Practical transformer on load with winding resistance
and leakage reactance(Primary current is I1 which
consists of I0 and I2’ )

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1)Ideal Transformer on no load

=V1

Fig.i)Schematic diagram Fig.ii)Phasor diagram

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• Consider an ideal transformer on no load
ie;secondary is open circuited as shown in
fig.i)The phasor diagram is shown in fig.ii)
• Here the primary is simply a coil of pure
inductance
• When an ac voltage V1 is applied to the
primary,it draws a small magnetising current
Im which lags behind the applied voltage by
90o
• This alternating current Im produces an
alternating flux ɸ which is proportional to and
in phase with it.
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• Flux ɸ is common to both the windings.So it is
taken as the reference phasor
• This alternating flux ɸ links with both the
windings and induces emfs E1 in primary and
E2 in secondary
• The primary emf E1 is equal to and in
opposition to V1 (by Lenz’s law). Also E2=V2
• Both emfs E1 and E2 lag behind flux ɸ by 90o as
shown in phasor diagram
• However their magnitude depends upon N1
and N2

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2)Practical Transformer on no load

Fig.(i)Schematic diagram

Fig.Phasor diagram
Phasor diagram

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• Consider a practical transformer on no load
ie;secondary is open circuited as shown in fig.
• The primary will draw a small current I0 to
supply iron losses and very small amount of cu
losses in the primary.At no load, cu loss in the
primary is I02R1 . Since I0 is very small,this loss
may be neglected.So at no load the main loss
is iron loss
• Hence the primary no load current I0 is not 90o
behind the applied voltage V1 but lags it by an
angle ɸ0 < 90o as shown by the phasor
diagram
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• No load input power W0=V1I0cosɸ0 where
cosɸ0 is the no load primary pf
• From the phasor diagram it can be seen that
the no load primary current I0 can be resolved
into two rectangular components
i. The component Iw is in phase with the
applied voltage V1. This is known as active
component (or wattful component) and
supplies the iron loss and a very small
primary cu loss and is given by Iw =I0cosɸ0

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ii. The component Im lagging behind V1 by 90o and
is known as reactive component(or magnetising
component) which produces the mutual flux ɸ
in the core and is given by Im =I0sinɸ0
• Clearly I0 is the phasor sum of Iw and Im
I0 = Iw2 + Im 2
and no load pf cosɸ0 = W0/V1I0 = Iw/I0
• In this case no load primary cu loss ie; I02R1 is very small
and can be neglected. Therefore no load primary input
power W0 is equal to the iron loss in the transformer
• At no load there is no current in the secondary.So E2=V2

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Im =I0sinɸ0

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Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept., Im =I0sinɸ0
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Iw =I0cosɸ0

Im =I0sinɸ0
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3)Ideal Transformer on load

Schematic diagram-assume K=1 Phasor diagram

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• Consider a load ZL across the secondary of
an ideal transformer as shown in fig.
• The secondary emf E2 will cause a current I2
to flow through the load and is given by
I2 = E2 / ZL =V2 / ZL because E2 = V2
• The angle at which I2 lags or leads V2
depends upon the resistance and reactance
of the load
• Here we have considered an inductive load
so that current I2 lags behind V2 by an angle
ɸ2 as shown in the phasor diagram(K=1)
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• The secondary current I2 setsup an mmf N2I2
which produces a flux in the opposite
direction to the flux ɸ originally setup in the
primary by the magnetising current Im
• This will change the flux in the core from the
original value
• However the flux in the core should not
change from the original value
• In order to fulfill this condition,the primary
must develop an mmf which exactly counter
balances the secondary mmf N2I2
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• Hence a primary current I1 must flow such
that primary mmf, N1I1 = N2I2
So I1 = N2I2 /N1 =KI2
• Thus when a transformer is loaded and carries
a secondary current I2 then a current I1 = I2’=
KI2 ,must flow in the primary to maintain the
mmf balance and is in anti phase with it.
• In other words the primary must draw enough
current to neutralize the demagnetizing effect
of secondary current so that mutual flux ɸ
remains constant

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• Thus as the secondary current I2 increases,the
primary current I1 also increases and keeps
the mutual flux ɸ constant
• Therefore the power input automatically
increases with the output
• Here ɸ1= ɸ2 .So cosɸ1 = cosɸ2
ie;primary pf=secondary pf
• Since there are no losses in an ideal
transformer input primary power is equal to
the output secondary power
ie; V1I1 cosɸ1= V2I2 cosɸ2
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Practical(real)Transformer on Load
• There are two cases
4)When the transformer is assumed to have no
winding resistance and leakage flux(only core
losses)
5)When the transformer has winding resistance
and leakage flux

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4)Transformer on load with no winding
resistance and leakage flux

Schematic diagram

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pplll

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Phasor Diagram
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• Fig.shows a practical transformer with the
assumption that resistance and leakage
reactances of the windings are negligible
• With this assumption Both E1 and E2 lag behind
the mutual flux ɸ by 900 or 1800 out of phase
with V1 also V2 = E2 and V1 = E1 (V1 & E1 are 1800
out of phase ) as shown in the phasor diagram
• Consider an inductive load which causes the
secondary current I2 to lag the secondary voltage
V2 by an angle ɸ2 as shown in the phasor diagram
• The total primary current I1 must meet two
requirements
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i. It must supply the no load current I0 which
consists of Iw (to meet the iron losses in the
transformer and Im (to provide flux in the core)
ii. It must supply a current I2’ to counteract the
demagnetising effect of secondary current I2
• The magnitude of I2’ will be such that N1I2’ =
N2I2, I2’ = N2I2/N1 = KI2
• The total primary current I1 is the phasor sum of
I0 and I2’ ie; I1 = I0 + I2’ where I2’ = - KI2 ie; I2’ is
1800 out of phase with I2 with magnitude KI2
which is shown in the phasor diagram

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• Note that in drawing the phasor diagram the
value of K is assumed unity so that primary
phasors are equal to secondary phasors
• Primary pf=cosɸ1,Secondary pf=cosɸ2,No load
pf = cosɸ0
Primary input power=V1I1cosɸ1
Secondary output power=V2I2cosɸ2

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5)Transformer on load with winding
resistance and leakage flux

(a)Schematic Diagram
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Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
(b)Phasor diagram for Inductive load
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• Fig.(a)shows a practical transformer having
winding resistances and leakage
reactances.These are the actual conditions
that exist in a transformer
• There is a voltage drop in R1 (I1R1)and X1
(I1X1)so that primary emf E1 is less than the
applied voltage V1
• Similarly there is a voltage drop in R2 (I2R2)
and X2 (I2X2) so that secondary terminal
voltage V2 is less than the secondary emf E2

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• Both E1 and E2 lags the mutual flux ɸ by 900
• Let us take the usual case of inductive load which
causes the secondary current I2 to lag behind the
secondary voltage V2 by an angle ɸ2 as shown in
the phasor diagram
• The total primary current I1 must meet two
requirements
i. It must supply no load current I0 to meet the
iron losses in the transformer and to provide
flux in the core
ii. It must supply a current I2’ to counteract the
demagnetising effect of secondary current I2

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• The magnitude of I2’ will be such that
N1I2’ = N2I2, I2’ = N2I2/N1 = KI2
• The total primary current I1 will be the phasor
sum of I0 and I2’ ie; I1 = I0 + I2’ where I2’ =-KI2 which
is shown in the phasor diagram
• The secondary terminal voltage V2 will be
obtained by subtracting I2R2 and I2X2 ie, I2Z2 from
E2
• Note that the counter emf that opposes the
applied voltage V1 is E1 . Therefore if we add I1R1
(in phase with I1 )and I1X1(900 ahead of I1) ie I1Z1
to -E1 ,we get applied primary voltage V1

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• Primary voltage V1 =E1+I1Z1 = E1+I1(R1+jX1)
• Strictly speaking ,V1 = -E1+I1Z1 = -E1+I1(R1+jX1)
• secondary voltage V2 =E2-I2Z2 = E2-I2(R2+jX2)
• Primary voltage drop=I1Z1
• secondary voltage drop=I2Z2
• Secondary pf (Load pf)=cosɸ2
• Primary pf= cosɸ1
• No load pf = cosɸ0
• Input power P1 = V1I1 cosɸ1
• Output power P2 = V2I2 cosɸ2
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• Similarly you can draw the phasor diagram for
a resistive load(unity pf).Here I2 will be in the
same direction as V2 instead of lagging
• Also you can draw the phasor diagram for a
capacitive load(leading pf).Here I2 will be
leading with V2 by an angle of ɸ2 instead of
lagging

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Transfer of parameters from one
winding to other of a transformer

V2,I2
V1,I1

Fig(i) Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,

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• Fig(i) shows a transformer where resistance
and reactances are shown external to the
winding
• The resistance,reactance and impedance of
one winding can be transferred to the other
by using the factor K2
• The voltage and current of one winding can be
transferred to the other by using the factor K
• This makes the analysis of the transformer
simple because,then we have to work in one
winding only
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• Inorder to transfer resistance and reactance from
secondary to primary divide by K2
➢ Equivalent secondary resistance referred to
primary R2’=R2/K2
➢ Equivalent secondary reactance referred to
primary X2’=X2/K2
• Inorder to transfer resistance and reactance from
primary to secondary multiply by K2
➢ Equivalent primary resistance referred to
secondary R1’=R1K2
➢ Equivalent primary reactance referred to
secondary X1’=X1K2

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• Inorder to transfer voltage from secondary to
primary divide by K ie;V1=V2/K
• Inorder to transfer voltage from primary to
secondary multiply by K ie;V2=KV1
• Inorder to transfer current from secondary to
primary multiply by K ie;I1=KI2
• Inorder to transfer current from primary to
secondary divide by K ie;I2=I1/K

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This is shown in the fig.(ii) which shows the resistance,
reactance and impedance referred to primary.Here
note that secondary now has zero resistance and
reactance

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Fig.(ii)
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This is shown in the fig.(iii) which shows the
resistance,reactance and impedance referred to
secondary.Here note that primary now has zero
resistance and reactance

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Fig.(iii) Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept., 8
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Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
We can find
i)Equivalent circuit of a transformer referred to
primary side
ii)Equivalent circuit of a transformer referred to
secondary side
Or
i)Equivalent circuit of a transformer referred to
L.V.(Low voltage) side
ii)Equivalent circuit of a transformer referred to
H.V.(High Voltage) side

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i)Equivalent circuit of a transformer
referred to primary side

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(Neglecting no load
current I0)

I1=I2’

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• A practical transformer is shown in fig(i) where
resistance and reactance are shown in the
windings and have core losses
• The fig(i) can be reduced into an equivalent
circuit shown in fig(vii) step by step
• The no load current I0 is simulated by pure
resistance R0 taking the active component Iw and
a pure inductance X0 taking the magnetising
component Im and is shown in fig(ii)
• R0 is the core loss resistance and X0 is the
magnetising reactance
• Here E1=V1-I1Z1 & E2=V2+I2Z2,R0=E1/Iw&X0=E1/Im

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• To make transformer calculations simpler,it is
preferable to transfer voltage,current and
impedance either to the primary or to the
secondary
• In that case we have to work in one winding
only which is more convenient
• The equivalent secondary induced voltage
referred to primary E2’=E2/K=E1
• Equivalent secondary terminal voltage
referred to primary V2’=V2/K
• Equivalent secondary current referred to
primary I2’=KI2
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• For transferring secondary
resistance,reactance and impedance to
primary K2 is used
• Equivalent secondary resistance referred to
primary R2’=R2/K2
• Equivalent secondary reactance referred to
primary X2’=X2/K2
• Equivalent secondary load impedance referred
to primary ZL’=ZL/K2
• The equivalent circuit of the transformer
referred to primary is shown in fig.(iii) which is
known as exact equivalent circuit
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• A simplification can be made by transferring
the exciting circuit across the input terminals
as shown in fig.(iv).Here R0=V1/Iw and
X0=V1/Im
• This is again simplified as shown in fig.(v).Here
R01=R1+R2’,X01=X1+X2’
• Further simplification can be made by
neglecting no load current I0 and is shown in
fig(vi) which is called approximate equivalent
circuit of the transformer referred to primary
• This is again simplified into fig.(Vii).Here
Z01=R01+jX01 or Z01=√R012+X012
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• Same manner we can draw the equivalent
circuit of the transformer referred to
secondary side also, where all the primary
parameters are transferred to secondary side

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ii)Equivalent circuit of a transformer referred to
secondary side

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Transformer Tests
• The transformer parameters(R0,X0,R01,X01,Z01
etc),Iron losses,Copper losses,efficiency and
Voltage regulation of a transformer can be
determined by two simple tests
1)Open Circuit Test or No load Test-To find R0, Xo
and Iron loss
2)Short Circuit Test or Impedance Test-To find
R01,X01 & Z01 (or R02,X02 & Z02 )and Copper loss
• These tests are very convenient as they provide
the required information without actually loading
the transformer.
• Here the power required to carry out these tests
are very small

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1)Open Circuit Test(No load Test)

Fig.(a) Fig.(b)

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• This test is conducted to find out the core loss
resistance R0,magnetising reactance X0 and iron
losses in a transformer
• The circuit diagram for the test is shown in the
fig.(a) and the equivalent circuit is shown in
fig.(b)
• In this test, the rated voltage is applied to the low
voltage side which act as primary with the high
voltage side left open circuited
• The applied primary voltage V1 is measured by
the volt meter,the no load current I0 by the
ammeter and no load input power W0 by the
wattmeter as shown in the fig.

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• As the normal rated voltage is applied to the
primary,normal iron losses will occur in the
transformer core
• Hence wattmeter will record the iron losses and
small cu loss in the primary due to no load
current I0
• Since I0 is very small (usually 2 to 10% of rated
current),Cu losses in the primary under no load
condition are neglegible as compared with the
iron losses
• Hence wattmeter reading practically gives the
iron losses in the transformer which is same at all
loads
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Thus open circuit test is used to determine iron losses
and parameters R0 and X0 of the transformer
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2)Short Circuit Test or Impedance Test

Fig(i) Fig.(ii)

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• This test is conducted to determine R01,X01 & Z01
(and R02,X02 & Z02 ) and full load copper losses of
the transformer
• Hence efficiency,voltage drop and voltage
regulation of the transformer can also be find out
with out loading the transformer
• The circuit diagram for the test is shown in the
fig.(i)
• In this test low voltage side which act as
secondary is short circuited by a thick conductor
and variable low voltage is applied on the high
voltage side which act as primary as shown in fig.
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• The low input voltage is gradually raised till at
voltage Vsc, full load current Isc or I1 flows in
the H.V.side(primary side)
• Then I2 in the L.V.side(secondary side) also has
full load value since I1/I2=N2/N1
• Under such conditions the cu loss in the
windings is the same as that on full load
• There is no output from the transformer
under S.C. conditions
• Therefore input power is almost Cu loss
• It is because iron loss in the core is negligibly
small since the voltage Vsc is very small
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• Hence the wattmeter reading will give the full
load cu losses in the transformer
• Fig(ii) shows the equivalent circuit of a
transformer on S.C.as referred to primary,the no
load current being neglected due to its small
value
• Full load Cu loss,Pcu=wattmeter reading Wsc
• Applied voltage Vsc=volt meter reading
• Full load primary current=I1=Isc=ammeter
reading
• Wsc=Isc2R01 So R01=Wsc/Isc2 where R01 is the
Equivalent resistance(Total resistance) of the
transformer referred to primary

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• Equivalent impedance (Total impedance)
referred to primary Z01=V1/I1=Vsc/Isc
• Equivalent leakage reactance(Total leakage
reactance) referred to primary,X01=√Z012-R012
• Short circuit pf,cos Øsc =Wsc/VscIsc
• Then we can find out R02,X02 and Z02 by using
K2
R02=R01K2, X02=X01K2, Z02=Z01K2

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Efficiency of Transformer
• The ratio of output power to input power is
called the efficiency of the transformer.
• It is expressed as

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Condition for Maximum efficiency

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Voltage regulation

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Different types of ac powers
1)Active power ‘P’=VIcosØ and its unit is
Watt(W) or kiloWatt(kW).It is the real power
or useful power
2)Reactive power ‘Q’=VIsinØ and its unit is volt
ampere reactive(VAR) or kilo volt ampere
reactive(kVAR)
3)Total power or apparent power ‘S’=VI and its
unit is volt ampere(VA) or kilo volt
ampere(kVA) also S=√P2+Q2

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Assignment No.II
1) Explain Sumpner’s test in a single phase
transformer
2) Explain parallel operation of single phase
transformers
3) Discuss parallel operation of three phase
transformers
4) Discuss no load tap changer and on load tap
changer in a transformer
5) Write a note on dry type transformers
Submit it on 2/5/24(Thursday)
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Fig.(7.41)

When a two-winding transformer is converted into autotransformer, the kVA

rating of the resulting autotransformer is greatly increased. This higher rating
results from the conduction connection.

7.39 Parallel Operation of Single-Phase Transformers

Two transformers are said to be connected
in parallel if the primary windings are
connected to supply busbars and
secondary windings are connected to load
busbars. Fig. (7.42) shows two
transformers A and B in parallel. While
connecting two or more than two
transformers in parallel, it is essential that
their terminals of similar polarities are Fig.(7.42)
joined to the same busbars as shown in
Fig. (7.42). The wrong connections may result in a dead short-circuit and
primary transformers may be damaged unless protected by fuses or circuit
breakers. There are three principal reasons for connecting transformers in
parallel. Firstly, if one transformer fails, the continuity of supply can be
maintained through other transformers. Secondly, when the load on the sub-
station becomes more than the capacity of the existing transformers, another
transformer can be added in parallel. Thirdly, any transformer can be taken out
of the circuit for repair/routine maintenance without interrupting supply to the
consumers.

Conditions for satisfactory parallel operation

In order that the transformers work satisfactorily in parallel, the following
conditions should be satisfied:
(i) Transformers should be properly connected with regard to their
polarities.
(ii) The voltage ratings and voltage ratios of the transformers should be the
same.
(iii) The per unit or percentage impedances of the transformers should be
equal.

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(iv) The reactance/resistance ratios of the transformers should be the same.

Condition (i)
Condition (i) is absolutely essential because wrong connections may result in
dead short-circuit. Fig. (7.43 (i)) shows the correct method of connecting two
single-phase transformers in parallel. It will be seen that round the loop formed
by the secondaries, the two secondary e.m.f.s EA and EB oppose and there will
be no circulating current.

Fig.(7.43)

Fig. (7.43 (ii)) shows the wrong method of connecting two single-phase
transformers is parallel. Here the two secondaries are so connected that their
e.m.f.s EA and EB are additive. This may lead to short-circuit conditions and a
very large circulating current will flow in the loop formed by the two
secondaries. Such a condition may damage the transformers unless they are
protected by fuses and circuit breakers.

Condition (ii)
This condition is desirable for the satisfactory parallel operation of transformers.
If this condition is not met, the secondary e.m.f.s will not be equal and there will
be circulating current in the loop formed by the secondaries. This will result in
the unsatisfactory parallel operation of transformers. Let us illustrate this point.
Consider two single-phase transformer A and B operating in parallel as shown in
Fig. (7.44). Let EA and EB be their no-load secondary voltages and ZA and ZB be
their impedances referred to the secondary. Then at no-load, the circulating
current in the loop formed by the secondaries is
EA  EB
Circulating current, I C  assuming E A  E B
ZA  ZB
Even a small difference in the
induced secondary voltages can
cause a large circulating current
in the secondary loop because
impedances of the transformers

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Fig.(7.44)
are small. This secondary circulating current will cause current to be drawn from
the supply by the primary of each transformer. These currents will cause copper
losses in both primary and secondary. This creates heating with no useful output.
When load is connected to the system, this circulating current will tend to
produce unequal loading conditions i.e., the transformers will not share the load
according to their kVA ratings. It is because the circulating current will tend to
make the terminal voltages of the same value for both transformers. Therefore,
transformer with smaller voltage ratio will tend to carry more than its proper
share of load. Thus, one transformer would tend to become overloaded than the
other and the system could not be loaded to the summation of transformer
ratings without overloading one transformer.

Condition (iii)
This condition is also desirable for proper parallel operation of transformers. If
this condition is not met, the transformers will not share the load according to
their kVA ratings. Sometimes this condition is not fulfilled by the design of the
transformers. In that case, it can be corrected by inserting proper amount of
resistance or reactance or both in series with either primary or secondary circuits
of the transformers where the impedance is below the value required to fulfil
condition (iii).

Condition (iv)
If the reactance/resistance ratios of the two transformers are not equal, the power
factor of the load supplied by the transformers will not be equal. In other words,
one transformer will be operating with a higher and the other with a lower power
factor than that of the load. Condition (iii) is much more important than
condition (iv). Considerable deviation from condition (iv) will result in only a
small reduction in the satisfactory degree of operation. When desired, condition
(iv) also may be improved by inserting external impedance of proper value.

7.40 Single-Phase Equal Voltage Ratio Transformers in

Parallel
Fig. (7.45) shows two single-phase equal voltage ratio transformers A and B in
parallel. The secondary e.m.f.s of the two transformers are equal (i.e., EA = EB =
E) because they have the same turns ratio and have their primaries connected to
the same supply.

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