Chapter 3

Sunday, December 19, 2021 2:24 PM

Analog and Digital Data:

Analog data Digital data
1. Continuous 1. Discrete
2. Examples 2. Examples
Analog clock, sounds of a human Digital clock, data stored in a
voice computer

Difference Between Analog And Digital Signal

Analog Signals Digital Signals
Continuous signals Discrete signals
Represented by sine waves Represented by square waves
Human voice, natural sound, analog electronic devices are a Computers, optical drives, and other electronic
few examples devices
Continuous range of values Discontinuous values
Records sound waves as they are Converts into a binary waveform.
Only used in analog devices. Suited for digital electronics like computers, mobiles
and more.

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A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a period, and repeats
that pattern over subsequent identical periods.
The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle
A nonperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats over time.
Periodic analog signal:
1. Simple - a sine wave
2. Composite - multiple sine wave
Sine wave:
A sine wave can be represented by three parameters:
the peak amplitude, the frequency, and the phase.
These three parameters fully describe a sine wave.
Peak Amplitude:
The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest intensity
Time period:
The time required for one complete cycle or oscillation is called time period.
Frequency:
The number of cycles in 1 second is called frequency.

Phase:
The term phase, or phase shift, describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0.
• A phase shift of 360º corresponds to a shift of a complete period;
• a phase shift of 180° corresponds to a shift of one-half of a period; and
• a phase shift of 90º corresponds to a shift of one-quarter of a period (see Figure 3.6).

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1. A sine wave with a phase of 0° starts at time 0 with a zero amplitude. The amplitude is
increasing.
2. A sine wave with a phase of 90° starts at time 0 with a peak amplitude. The amplitude is
decreasing
3. A sine wave with a phase of 180° starts at time 0 with a zero amplitude. The amplitude is
decreasing
Another way
1. A sine wave with a phase of 0° is not shifted.
2. A sine wave with a phase of 90° is shifted to the left by cycle. However, note that the signal does
not really exist before time 0
3. A sine wave with a phase of 180° is shifted to the left by cycle. However, note that the signal
does not really exist before time 0.

Wavelength:
Wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a simple sine wave to the propagation speed of the
medium.
The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in one period.

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TIME DOMAIN:
The time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with respect to time (it is an amplitude-
versus-time plot).

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Composite Signal:
any composite signal is a combination of simple sine waves with different frequencies, amplitudes,
and phases.
1. Periodic:
A periodic composite signal can be decomposed into a series of simple sine waves with discrete
frequencies, that have integer values.

2. Non-periodic:
A nonperiodic composite signal can be decomposed into a combination of an infinite number of
simple sine waves with continuous frequencies, that have real values.

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Bandwidth:

Bandwidth in Hertz:
Bandwidth in hertz is the range of frequencies contained in a composite signal or the range of
frequencies a channel can pass.

Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds:

The term bandwidth can also refer to the number of bits per second that a channel, a link, or even a
network can transmit.

There is an explicit relationship between the bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in bits per second.
Basically, an increase in bandwidth in hertz means an increase in bandwidth in bits per second.

The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its bandwidth.

Digital Signals:

Bit-rate:
The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits per second (bps).

Bit-Length:
The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the transmission medium.

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Transmission of Digital Signal:
Baseband Transmission:
Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal over a channel without changing the digital
signal to an analog signal.
• Requires low pass channel: a channel with a bandwidth that starts from zero.
• This is the case if we have a dedicated medium with a bandwidth constituting only one channel

Case 1: Low-Pass Channel with wide bandwidth

If we want to preserve the exact form of a nonperiodic digital signal, we need to send the entire
spectrum, the continuous range of frequencies between zero and infinity.
• the amplitudes of the frequencies at the border of the bandwidth are so small that they can be
ignored.

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Example: LAN

Case 2:Low-Pass Channel with Limited Bandwidth

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Broadband Transmission:
Broadband transmission or modulation means changing the digital signal to an analog signal for
transmission. Modulation allows us to use a bandpass channel—a channel with a bandwidth that
does not start from zero

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Example:
1. A telephone subscriber line
2. Digital cellular telephone

Baseband transmission Broadband transmission

Transmit digital signals Transmit analog signals
It works well with bus topology It works well with bus as well as tree
Can transmit only a single data stream at a time Can transmit multiple signal waves at a time
Support bidirectional communication simultaneously Support unidirectional communication only
Signals can only travel over short distances Signals can be travelled over long distances
Use coaxial, twisted-pair, and fiber-optic cables Use radio waves, coaxial cables, and fiber optic cables
Mainly used in Ethernet LAN networks Mainly used in cable and telephone networks

Transmission Impairment:
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal
impairment.

Attenuation:
Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium, it
loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. That is why a wire carrying
electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the electrical energy in the signal is
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electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the electrical energy in the signal is
converted to heat. To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal. Figure 3.27
shows the effect of attenuation and amplification.

Decibel:
To show that a signal has lost or gained strength, engineers use the unit of the decibel.
The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two different points.
Note that the decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if a signal is amplified.
Why decibel???
One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the changes in the strength of a signal is that
decibel numbers can be added (or subtracted) when we are measuring several points (cascading)
instead of just two.

Distortion:
Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.
In other words, signal components at the receiver have phases different from what they had at the
sender. The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same.

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sender. The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same.

Noise:
1. Thermal noise(motion of electrons in wire)
2. Induced noise(noise from motors)
3. Cross talk(effect of one wire on the other)
4. Impulse noise(power lines, lightning)

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Data Rate Limits:
A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data, in bits per
second, over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors.
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Noiseless channel:(Nyquist Bit Rate)

If the number of levels in a signal is just 2, the receiver can easily distinguish between a 0 and a 1. If
the level of a signal is 64, the receiver must be very sophisticated to distinguish between 64 different
levels. In other words, increasing the levels of a signal reduces the reliability of the system.

Noisy channel: (Shannon Capacity)

bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel,

SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio
capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second

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Throughput:
The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network.

Imagine a highway designed to transmit 1000 cars per minute from one point to another. However, if
there is congestion on the road, this figure may be reduced to 100 cars per minute. The bandwidth is
1000 cars per minute; the throughput is 100 cars per minute.

Latency(Delay):
The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive at the
destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the source.

Latency=propagation time+ transmission time+ queuing time + processing delay

Propagation Type: Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from the source to
the destination.

Queuing Time :
The third component in latency is the queuing time, the time needed for each intermediate or end
device to hold the message before it can be processed. The queuing time is not a fixed factor; it
changes with the load imposed on the network. When there is heavy traffic on the network, the
queuing time increases. An intermediate device, such as a router, queues the arrived messages and
processes them one by one. If there are many messages, each message will have to wait.

Bandwidth Delay Product:

Case 1:
We want to see what the bandwidth-delay product means in this case. Looking at the figure, we can
say that this product 1 × 5 is the maximum number of bits that can fill the link. There can be no more
than 5 bits at any time on the link.

Case 2:
Now assume we have a bandwidth of 5 bps. Figure 3.33 shows that there can be maximum 5 × 5 = 25
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Now assume we have a bandwidth of 5 bps. Figure 3.33 shows that there can be maximum 5 × 5 = 25
bits on the line. The reason is that, at each second, there are 5 bits on the line; the duration of each
bit is 0.20 s

we need to fill up the full-duplex channel (two directions). The sender should send a burst of data of
(2 × bandwidth × delay) bits. The sender then waits for receiver acknowledgment for part of the burst
before sending another burst. The amount 2 × bandwidth × delay is the number of bits that can be in
transition at any time.

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