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MEC32P-5: MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES

MODULE 2
RELATIONSHIPS OF STRESS AND STRAIN
The learning objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:
• Interpret the relationship of stress and strain.
• Identify the components of the stress-strain diagram.
• Understand Hooke’s Law.
• Interpret the importance of factor of safety.
• Evaluate the deformation of members under axial loading.
• Evaluate shearing deformation.
• Understand Poisson’s ratio.
• Evaluate statically indeterminate structures.
• Evaluate thermal stresses.

COURSE MATERIAL:
INTRODUCTION
Another important aspect of the analysis and design of structures relates to the deformations
caused by the loads applied to a structure. Clearly, it is important to avoid deformations so large
that they may prevent the structure from fulfilling the purpose for which it was intended. However
the analysis of deformations may also help us in the determination of stresses. Indeed, it is not
always possible to determine the forces in the members of a structure by applying only the
principles of statics. This is because statics is based on the assumption of undeformable, rigid
structures. By considering engineering structures as deformable and analyzing the deformations
in their various members, it will be possible for us to compute forces that are statically
indeterminate, i.e., indeterminate within the framework of statics. As a matter of fact, the
distribution of stresses in a given member is statically indeterminate, even when the force in that
member is known. To determine the actual distribution of stresses within a member, it is thus
necessary to analyze the deformations that take place in that member. In this module, you will
consider the deformations of a structural member such as a rod, bar, or plate under axial loading.
First, the normal strain 𝜖 in a member will be defined as the deformation of the member per unit
length. Plotting the stress 𝜎 versus the strain 𝜖 as the load applied to the member is increased
will yield a stress-strain diagram for the material used. From such a diagram we can determine
some important properties of the material, such as its modulus of elasticity, and whether the
material is ductile or brittle. You will also see in the next part that, while the behavior of most
materials is independent of the direction in which the load is applied, the response of fiber-
reinforced composite materials depends upon the direction of the load.

From the stress-strain diagram, we can also determine whether the strains in the specimen will
disappear after the load has been removed—in which case the material is said to behave
elastically—or whether a permanent set or plastic deformation will result.
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NORMAL STRAIN UNDER AXIAL LOADING
Let us consider a rod BC, of length L and uniform cross-sectional area A, which is suspended
from B (Fig. 2.1a). If we apply a load P to end C, the rod elongates (Fig. 2.1b). Plotting the
magnitude P of the load against the deformation 𝛿 (Greek letter delta), we obtain a certain load-
deformation diagram (Fig. 2.2). While this diagram contains information useful to the analysis of
the rod under consideration, it cannot be used directly to predict the deformation of a rod of the
same material but of different dimensions. Indeed, we observe that, if a deformation 𝛿 is produced
in rod BC by a load P, a load 2P is required to cause the same deformation in a rod B’C’ of the
same length L, but of cross-sectional area 2A (Fig. 2.3). We note that, in both cases, the value of
the stress is the same: 𝝈 = 𝑷⁄𝑨. On the other hand, a load P applied to a rod B”C”, of the same
cross-sectional area A, but of length 2L, causes a deformation 2𝛿 in that rod (Fig. 2.4), i.e., a
deformation twice as large as the deformation d it produces in rod BC. But in both cases the ratio
of the deformation over the length of the rod is the same; it is equal to 𝛿 ⁄𝐿. This observation
brings us to introduce the concept of strain: We define the normal strain in a rod under axial
loading as the deformation per unit length of that rod. Denoting the normal strain by 𝜖 (Greek letter
epsilon), we write
𝛿
𝜖=
𝐿

Plotting the stress 𝜎 = 𝑃⁄𝐴 against the strain 𝜖 = 𝛿 ⁄𝐿, we obtain a curve that is characteristic of
the properties of the material and does not depend upon the dimensions of the particular
specimen used. This curve is called a stress-strain diagram.
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MEC32P-5: MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES

Since the rod BC considered in the preceding discussion had a uniform
cross section of area A, the normal stress 𝜎 could be assumed to have a
constant value 𝑃⁄𝐴 throughout the rod. Thus, it was appropriate to define
the strain 𝜖 as the ratio of the total deformation 𝛿 over the total length L of
the rod. In the case of a member of variable cross-sectional area A,
however, the normal stress 𝜎 = 𝑃⁄𝐴 varies along the member, and it is
necessary to define the strain at a given point Q by considering a small
element of undeformed length ∆𝑥 (Fig. 2.5). Denoting by 𝑑𝛿 the
deformation of the element under the given loading, we define the normal
strain at point Q as
∆𝛿 𝑑𝛿
𝜖 = lim =
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Since deformation and length are expressed in the same units, the normal strain 𝜖 obtained by
dividing 𝛿 by L (or 𝑑𝛿 by 𝑑𝑥) is a dimensionless quantity. Thus, the same numerical value is
obtained for the normal strain in a given member, whether SI metric units or U.S. customary units
are used. Consider, for instance, a bar of length 𝐿 = 0.600 𝑚 and uniform cross section, which
undergoes a deformation 𝛿 = 150 × 10−6 𝑚. The corresponding strain is
𝛿 150 × 10−6 𝑚
𝜖= = = 250 × 10−6 𝑚⁄𝑚 = 250 × 10−6
𝐿 0.600 𝑚
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STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
We saw in the previous section that the diagram representing the relation
between stress and strain in a given material is an important characteristic of
the material. To obtain the stress-strain diagram of a material, one usually
conducts a tensile test on a specimen of the material. One type of specimen
commonly used is shown in Photo 2.1. The cross-sectional area of the
cylindrical central portion of the specimen has been accurately determined
and two gage marks have been inscribed on that portion at a distance 𝐿0 from
each other. The distance 𝐿0 is known as the gage length of the specimen.

The test specimen is then placed in a testing machine (Photo 2.2), which is
used to apply a centric load P. As the load P increases, the distance L
between the two gage marks also increases (Photo 2.3). Distance L is
measured with a dial gage and the elongation 𝛿 = 𝐿 − 𝐿0 is recorded for each
value of P. A second dial gage is often used simultaneously to measure and
record the change in diameter of the specimen. From each pair of readings P
and 𝛿, the stress 𝜎 is computed by dividing P by the original cross-sectional
area 𝐴0 of the specimen, and the strain 𝜖 by dividing the elongation 𝛿 by the
original distance 𝐿0 between the two gage marks. The stress-strain diagram
may then be obtained by plotting P as an abscissa and 𝜎 as an ordinate.

Stress-strain diagrams of various materials vary widely, and different tensile tests conducted on
the same material may yield different results, depending upon the temperature of the specimen
and the speed of loading. It is possible, however, to distinguish some common characteristics
among the stress-strain diagrams of various groups of materials and to divide materials into two
broad categories on the basis of these characteristics, namely, the ductile materials and the brittle
materials.
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Ductile materials, which comprise structural steel, as well as many alloys of other metals, are
characterized by their ability to yield at normal temperatures. As the specimen is subjected to an
increasing load, its length first increases linearly with the load and at a very slow rate. Thus, the
initial portion of the stress-strain diagram is a straight line with a steep slope (Fig. 2.6). However,
after a critical value 𝜎𝑌 of the stress has been reached, the specimen undergoes a large
deformation with a relatively small increase in the applied load. This deformation is caused by
slippage of the material along oblique surfaces and is due, therefore, primarily to shearing
stresses. As we can note from the stress-strain diagrams of two typical ductile materials (Fig. 2.6),
the elongation of the specimen after it has started to yield can be 200 times as large as its
deformation before yield. After a certain maximum value of the load has been reached, the
diameter of a portion of the specimen begins to decrease, because of local instability (Photo 2.4a).
This phenomenon is known as necking. After necking has begun, somewhat lower loads are
sufficient to keep the specimen elongating further, until it finally ruptures (Photo 2.4b). We note
that rupture occurs along a cone-shaped surface that forms an angle of approximately 45° with
the original surface of the specimen. This indicates that shear is primarily responsible for the
failure of ductile materials, and confirms the fact that, under an axial load, shearing stresses are
largest on surfaces forming an angle of 45° with the load. The stress 𝜎𝑌 at which yield is initiated
is called the yield strength of the material, the stress 𝜎𝑈 corresponding to the maximum load
applied to the specimen is known as the ultimate strength and the stress 𝜎𝐵 corresponding to
rupture is called the breaking strength.
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Proportional Limit

From the origin O to the point called the proportional limit, the stress-strain curve is a straight line.
This linear relation between elongation and the axial force causing it was first noticed by Sir Robert
Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke's Law, which states that within the proportional limit, the stress
is directly proportional to strain or
𝜎∝𝜖
or
𝜎 = 𝑘𝜖

The constant of proportionality 𝑘 is called the modulus of elasticity 𝐸 or Young’s modulus, and is
equal to the slope of the stress-strain diagram from O to P.
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖

Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original shape
when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may be developed such that there is
no permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.

Elastic And Plastic Ranges

The region in the stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic range. The region from P
to R is called the plastic range.

Yield Point
The yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or yielding
without any increase in load.

Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile strength.

Rupture Strength
Rupture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as the breaking
strength.
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Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually
increased from O to P, in N⋅m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the stress-strain
curve from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in the figure). The resilience
of the material is its ability to absorb energy without creating a permanent distortion.

Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually
increased from O to R, in N⋅m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the entire stress-
strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy without
causing it to break.

Working Stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety

Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given loading. The maximum
safe stress that a material can carry is termed the allowable stress. The allowable stress should
be limited to values not exceeding the proportional limit. However, since the proportional limit is
difficult to determine accurately, the allowable stress is taken as either the yield point or ultimate
strength divided by a factor of safety. The ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield strength) to
allowable strength is called the factor of safety.
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DEFORMATIONS OF MEMBERS UNDER AXIAL LOADING
Consider a homogeneous rod BC of length L and uniform cross-section of area A subjected to a
centric axial load P (Fig. 2.1). If the resulting axial stress 𝜎 = 𝑃⁄𝐴 does not exceed the
proportional limit of the material, we may apply Hooke’s law and write
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖
from which it follows that
𝜎 𝑃
𝜖= =
𝐸 𝐴𝐸

Recalling that the strain 𝜖 was defined as 𝜖 = 𝛿 ⁄𝐿, we have

𝛿 = 𝜖𝐿
𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸

STIFFNESS, 𝒌
Stiffness is the ratio of the steady force acting on an elastic body to the resulting displacement. It
has a unit of N/mm.
𝑃
𝑘=
𝛿

It shows that for an axially loaded member, the axial stiffness is

𝐴𝐸
𝑘=
𝐿
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PROBLEM 1: Determine the deformation of the steel rod shown in the figure under the given
loads (𝐸 = 29 × 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖).
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PROBLEM 2: A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm2 and length of 150 m is
suspended vertically from one end. It supports a tensile load of 20 kN at the lower end. If the unit
mass of steel is 7850 kg/m3 and 𝐸 = 200 × 103 𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 , find the total elongation of the rod.
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PROBLEM 3: An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5 in2 carries the axial loads
applied at the positions shown in the figure. Compute the total change in length of the bar if 𝐸 =
10 × 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖. Assume the bar is suitably braced to prevent lateral buckling.
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PROBLEM 4: A bronze bar is fastened between a steel bar and an aluminum bar as shown in
the figure. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Find the largest value of P that will
not exceed an overall deformation of 3.0 mm, or the following stresses: 140 MPa in the steel; 120
MPa in the bronze; and 80 MPa in the aluminum. Assume that the assembly is suitably braced to
prevent buckling. Use 𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝐸𝑎𝑙 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎, and 𝐸𝑏𝑟 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎.
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PROBLEM 5: The rigid bar AB, attached to two vertical rods as shown in the figure, is horizontal
before the load P is applied. Determine the vertical displacement of B if P = 50 kN.
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SHEARING DEFORMATION
Shearing forces cause shearing deformation. An element subject to shear does not change in
length but undergoes a change in shape.

The change in angle at the corner of an original rectangular element is called the shear strain
and is expressed as
𝛿𝑠
𝛾=
𝐿

The ratio of the shear stress 𝜏 and the shear strain 𝛾 is called the modulus of elasticity in shear
or modulus of rigidity and is denoted as G, in MPa.
𝜏
𝐺=
𝛾

The relationship between the shearing deformation and the applied shearing force is
𝑉𝐿
𝛿𝑠 =
𝐴𝑠 𝐺
where V is the shearing force acting over an area 𝐴𝑠 .
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POISSON’S RATIO
When a homogeneous slender bar is axially loaded, the resulting stress and strain satisfy Hooke’s
law, as long as the elastic limit of the material is not exceeded. Assuming that the load P is directed
along the x-axis, we have 𝜎𝑥 = 𝑃⁄𝐴, where 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of the bar, and, from
Hooke’s law,
𝜎𝑥
𝜖𝑥 =
𝐸
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material.
We also note that the normal stresses on faces respectively
perpendicular to the y and z axes are zero: 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑧 = 0. It
would be tempting to conclude that the corresponding strains,
𝜖𝑦 and 𝜖𝑧 are also zero. This, however, is not the case. In all
engineering materials, the elongation produced by an axial
tensile force P in the direction of the force is accompanied by
a contraction in any transverse direction. In this part, all
materials considered will be assumed to be both
homogeneous and isotropic, i.e. their mechanical properties
will be assumed independent of both position and direction. If
follows that the strain must have the same value for any
transverse direction. Therefore, for the loading shown in the
figure, we must have 𝜖𝑦 = 𝜖𝑧 . This common value is referred
to as the lateral strain. An important constant for a given
material is its Poisson’s ratio, named after the French
mathematician Siméon Denis Poisson (1781–1840) and
denoted by the Greek letter 𝜈 (nu). It is defined as
lateral strain
𝜈=−
axial strain
𝜖𝑦 𝜖𝑧
𝜈=− =−
𝜖𝑥 𝜖𝑥

BIAXIAL DEFORMATION
If an element is subjected simultaneously by ensile stresses, 𝜎𝑥 and 𝜎𝑦 , in the x and y directions,
the strain in the x-direction is 𝜎𝑥 ⁄𝐸 and the strain in the y direction is 𝜎𝑦 /𝐸. Simultaneously, the
stress in the y direction will produce a lateral contraction on the x direction of the amount −𝜈𝜖𝑦 or
−𝜈𝜎𝑦 /𝐸. The resulting strain in the x direction will be
1
𝜖𝑥 = (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜈𝜎𝑦 )
𝐸
and
1
𝜎𝑦 = (𝜎𝑦 − 𝜈𝜎𝑥 )
𝐸

TRIAXIAL DEFORMATION
If an element is subjected simultaneously to three mutually perpendicular normal stresses 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 ,
and 𝜎𝑧 , which are accompanied by strains 𝜖𝑥 , 𝜖𝑦 , and 𝜖𝑧 , respectively,
1
𝜎𝑥 = [𝜎𝑥 − 𝜈(𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 )]
𝐸
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1
𝜎𝑦 = [𝜎 − 𝜈(𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑧 )]
𝐸 𝑦
1
𝜎𝑧 = [𝜎𝑧 − 𝜈(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 )]
𝐸

The relationship between modulus of elasticity E, shear modulus G, and Poisson’s ratio 𝜈 is
𝐸
𝐺=
2(1 + 𝜈)

The bulk modulus of elasticity 𝐾 is a measure of resistance of a material to change in volume

without change in shape or form. It is given as
𝐸
𝐾=
3(1 − 2𝜈)
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PROBLEM 6: A solid cylinder of diameter d carries an axial load P. Show that its change in
diameter is 4𝑃𝜈⁄𝜋𝐸𝑑.
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PROBLEM 7: A 2-inch-diameter steel tube with a wall thickness of 0.05 inch just fits in a rigid
hole. Find the tangential stress if an axial compressive load of 3140 lb is applied. Assume 𝜈 =
0.30 and neglect the possibility of buckling.
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PROBLEM 8: A rectangular block of a material with a modulus of rigidity 𝐺 = 90 𝑘𝑠𝑖 is bonded to
two rigid horizontal plates, 2 inches apart. The lower plate is fixed, while the upper plate is
subjected to a horizontal force P. Knowing that the upper plate moves through 0.04 inch under
the action of the force, determine (a) the average shearing strain in the material, (b) the force P
exerted on the upper plate.
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STATICALLY INDETERMINATE MEMBERS
When the reactive forces or the internal resisting forces over a cross-section exceed the number
of independent equations of equilibrium, the structure is called statically indeterminate. These
cases require the use of additional relations that depend on the elastic deformation in the
members.

PROBLEM 9: A reinforced concrete column 200 mm in diameter is designed to carry an axial

compressive load of 300 kN. Determine the required area of the reinforcing steel if the allowable
stresses are 6 MPa and 120 MPa for the concrete and steel, respectively. Use Ece = 14 GPa and
Est = 200 GPa.
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PROBLEM 10: The lower ends of the three bars in the figure are the same level before the uniform
rigid block weighing 40 kips is attached. Each steel bar has a length of 3 ft. and an area of 1.0 in²,
and E = 29 × 106 psi. For the bronze bar, the area is 1.5 in² and E = 12 × 106 psi. Determine (a)
the length of the bronze bar so that the load on each steel bar is twice the load on the bronze bar,
and (b) the length of the bronze that will make the steel stress twice the bronze stress.
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PROBLEM 11: The assembly in the figure consists of a light rigid bar AB pinned at O, that is
attached to the steel and aluminum rods. In the position shown, bar AB is horizontal and there is
a gap, ∆ = 5 mm, between the lower end of the steel rod and its pin support at C. Compute the
stress in the aluminum rod when the lower end of the steel rod is attached to its support.
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PROBLEM 12: The light rigid bar ABCD shown in the figure is pinned at B and connected to two
vertical rods stress-free, determine the stress in each rod after load after the load P = 20 kips is
applied.
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THERMAL STRESSES
Temperature changes cause the body to expand or contract. The amount 𝛿𝑇 , is given by
𝛿𝑇 = 𝛼𝐿(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 ) = 𝛼𝐿∆𝑇
where 𝛼 is the coefficient of thermal expansion in m/m°C, 𝐿 is the length in meters, and 𝑇𝑖 and 𝑇𝑓
are the initial and final temperatures, respectively, in °C. For steel, 𝛼 = 11.25 × 10−6 /°𝐶.

PROBLEM 13: The rigid bar ABC in the figure is pinned at B and attached to the two vertical
rods. Initially, the bar is horizontal, and the vertical rods are stress-free. Determine the stress in
the aluminum rod if the temperature of the steel rod is decreased by 40°C. Neglect the weight of
bar ABC.
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PROBLEM 14: The composite bar shown in the figure is firmly attached to unyielding supports.
An axial force P = 50 kips is applied at 60°F. Compute the stress in each material at 120°F.
Assume 𝛼 = 6.5 × 10−6 𝑖𝑛/(𝑖𝑛 ⋅ °𝐹) for steel and 12.8 × 10−6 𝑖𝑛/(𝑖𝑛 ⋅ °𝐹) for aluminum.
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PROBLEM 15: The rigid bar CDE is attached to a pin support
at E and rests on the 30-mm-diameter brass cylinder BD. A
22-mm-diameter steel rod AC passes through a hole in the
bar and is secured by a nut which is snugly fitted when the
temperature of the entire assembly is 20°C. The temperature
of the brass cylinder is then raised to 50°C present before
the temperature change; determine the stress in the cylinder.
Rod AC: Steel Rod BD: Brass
Est = 200 GPa Ebrass = 105 GPa
αst = 11.7 × 10 /°C
-6
αbrass = 20.9 × 10-6/°C