College of Engineering and Architecture

Civil Engineering Department

Brgy. Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

CE 344 – IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

CHAPTER VIII: DAMS

Submitted by:
Maongko, Gwen Trixie Miles Z.
Planteras, Dave R.
Secreto, John Angelo M.

Submitted to:
Engr. Irismay T. Jumawan,Ph.D.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Introduction: Dams…………. ................................................................................................ 1

II. Classification According to Use ........................................................................................ 3
A. Storage Dams……………. ................................................................................................. 3
B. Diversion Dams………… ................................................................................................. 4
C. Detention Dams………… ................................................................................................. 5
III. Classification According to Hydraulic Design............................................................ 6
A. Non-Overflow Dam……. ................................................................................................. 6
B. Overflow Dam…………… ................................................................................................. 7
IV. Classification According to Material .............................................................................. 8
A. Rigid Dams………………… ................................................................................................ 8
B. Non-rigid Dams………….................................................................................................. 8
V. Gravity Dam…………………… ................................................................................................. 8
A. Components of Gravity Dam....................................................................................... 9
B. Forces acting on Gravity Dam .................................................................................... 10
C. Modes of Failure: Stability Requirements............................................................ 11
D. Pressure Distribution at the Base ............................................................................ 11
VI. Buttress Dams…………………................................................................................................. 17
A. Components of Buttress Dam .................................................................................... 17
VII. Arch Dam……………………….………....................................................................................... 19
A. Materials Used…………… ................................................................................................ 19
B. Design Variation………… ................................................................................................ 20
C. Site Requirements for Irrigation Arch Dams ...................................................... 22
VIII. Earth Dam………………………. ................................................................................................ 24
D. Types of Earth based on method of construction ............................................ 24
E. Types of Earth Dams…… ............................................................................................... 25
F. Basic Components of an Earth Dams...................................................................... 26
IX. Post Test………………………… ................................................................................................. 30
X. References………………………................................................................................................. 33
I. INTRODUCTION

A dam is a structure built across a stream, a river, or an estuary to retain water. Dams are
built to provide water for human consumption, for irrigating arid and semiarid lands, or for
use in industrial processes. They are used to increase the amount of water available for
generating hydroelectric power, to reduce peak discharge of floodwater created by large
storms or heavy snowmelt, or to increase the depth of water in a river in order to improve
navigation and allow barges and ships to travel more easily. Dams can also provide a lake for
recreational activities such as swimming, boating, and fishing. Many dams are built for more
than one purpose. The purpose of a dam is to impound (store) water for any of several
reasons, such as flood control, water supply for humans or livestock, irrigation, energy
generation, recreation, or pollution control.

Dams play a crucial role in irrigation engineering by providing a reliable source of water
for agricultural purposes, especially in regions where water availability fluctuates due to
seasonal variations. These structures are designed to store water during times of surplus,
such as during the rainy season, and release it gradually during periods of drought or low
water availability. By regulating the flow of rivers and streams, dams help ensure a
consistent and controlled water supply for irrigation systems, which in turn supports crop
production, boosts agricultural yields, and promotes food security making them
multifunctional tools in both agricultural and environmental management. Through careful
design and operation, dams can be optimized to balance the needs of agriculture with those
of surrounding ecosystems, contributing to sustainable water resource management.

As climate change intensifies weather patterns and alters water availability, the
importance of dams in irrigation engineering continues to grow, making them a critical focus
for engineers aiming to enhance agricultural resilience and sustainability.

In addition to their vital role in water management, dams also offer opportunities for
integrating modern technology to improve efficiency and sustainability. For instance,
advanced irrigation techniques such as drip or sprinkler systems can be combined with dam-
reservoir management to optimize water use and reduce wastage.

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Dams Function

• Irrigation
• Flood control
• Hydroelectric power generation
• Water supply
• Fishery
• Recreational

Learning Outcomes:

• Learn about dams, classification and types according to its use, hydraulic design and
construction materials.
• Analyze problems regarding gravity dams, calculating hydrostatic forces,
determining factors of safety against sliding and overturning, and evaluating
foundation pressures.
• Identify different types of dams, such as gravity dams, arch dams, buttress dams,
earth dams, and rockfill dams.

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II. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USE

Dams can be classified according to their primary use, which helps determine their
design, operation, and impact on the surrounding environment. The main types of dams
based on their use include:

A. Storage Dams

They are constructed to store water during the rainy season when there is a large flow in
the river. This type is also essential for managing water availability, particularly in regions
with irregular rainfall. Moreover, many small dams impound the spring runoff providing a
reliable water source for irrigation during dry seasons, supporting agricultural activities and
improving food security.

Storage dams are the most common type of dams that may also provide improved habitat
for fish and wildlife, store water for hydroelectric power generation, and irrigation or for a
flood control project.

Key takeaways:

• Provides a long-term, regulated water supply.

• Can mitigate drought impacts on agriculture.

• Allows for multipurpose use (e.g., irrigation, hydropower, flood control).

Source: https://aquabarrier.com/blog/cofferdam/7-different-kinds-of-dams-their-uses/
Figure 1. Storage Dam
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B. Diversion Dams

A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water of the river into an off-
taking canal (or a conduit). They provide sufficient pressure for pushing water into ditches,
canals, or other conveyance systems. Such shorter dams are used for irrigation, and for
diversion from a stream to a distant storage reservoir. A diversion dam is usually of low
height and has a small storage reservoir on its upstream. The diversion dam is a sort of
storage weir which also diverts water and has a small storage. Sometimes, the terms weirs
and diversion dams are used synonymously.

These dams play a pivotal role in irrigation systems, particularly in regions where it is
important to ensure that water is diverted directly to irrigation canals. Rather than holding
back large quantities of water, they provide a controlled way to divert the natural flow to
farmlands.

Key takeaways:

• Used primarily to manage water distribution

• Lower cost of construction compared to storage dams.

• Less environmental impact due to minimal water storage.

Source: https://aquabarrier.com/blog/cofferdam/7-different-kinds-of-dams-their-uses/
Figure 2. Diversion Dam
The figure 2 illustrates a diversion dam. The low height of the dam and the steady
flow of water over the spillway suggest its purpose is not for storage but rather to manage
the direction and flow rate of water downstream.

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C. Detention Dams

Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A detention dam retards the flow in the
river on its downstream during floods by storing some flood water. Thus, the effect of sudden
floods is reduced to some extent. The water retained in the reservoir is later released
gradually at a controlled rate according to the carrying capacity of the channel downstream
of the detention dam. Thus, the area downstream of the dam is protected against flood.

While detention dams are not primarily used for irrigation, they play a complementary
role by preventing floodwaters from damaging irrigation infrastructure and agricultural
lands. In some cases, water temporarily held by a detention dam can be used for short-term
irrigation purposes, but the main goal is flood control rather than long-term water storage.

Key takeaways:

• Effective in flood management and reducing downstream flood risks.

• Can protect farmland and irrigation systems from flood damage.
• Helps recharge groundwater if designed for controlled release into aquifers.

Source: https://aquabarrier.com/blog/cofferdam/7-different-kinds-of-dams-their-uses/
Figure 3. The Olmos Dam located in San Antonio
The figure 3 illustrates a detention dam. The Olmos Dam is a prime example of a
detention dam, designed primarily for flood control. Built in 1927, its main function is to
temporarily hold back large volumes of stormwater during heavy rains, preventing
downstream flooding in the city.
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III. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO HYDRAULIC DESIGN
Dams can be classified based on their hydraulic design, which refers to how they manage
and control water flow. This classification is crucial as it determines the dam's primary
function and how it interacts with water bodies. The main types include:

Source: Punmia, B. C., Lal, P. B. B. (2021). Irrigation and Water Power Engineering (17 th edition)
Figure 4. Non-overflow dam and Overflow dam

A. Non-overflow dam

Non-overflow dams are designed to prevent water from flowing over their crest, typically
channeling excess water through designated spillways located away from the dam structure.
These dams are primarily constructed in areas where the dam itself is not intended to act as
a spillway for excess water. Instead, they are built to hold back large quantities of water,
relying on separate overflow mechanisms to manage any surplus.

Non-overflow dams are generally taller and more massive, as they need to withstand
greater pressure from the water, they are holding back without allowing it to pass over the
top. They can be constructed from materials such as concrete, rock, or earth, depending on
the specific site requirements and the volume of water that needs to be stored.

Key Features of Non-Overflow Dams:

• Water is not allowed to flow over the top of the dam.

• Excess water is directed through a separate spillway.

• Designed to be stable and withstand high water pressure.

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Applications:

• Ideal in situations where the dam must hold back large volumes of water without
allowing overflow.

• Often used in large storage reservoirs, where the focus is on maintaining a stable
water supply rather than handling frequent surges.

B. Overflow dam

Overflow dams, also known as spillway dams, are designed to allow surplus (excess)
water to flow over their crest in a controlled manner. These dams are typically built in areas
where the river or reservoir might experience fluctuating water levels, particularly during
periods of heavy rainfall or flooding. Their primary function is to control water flow and
prevent overtopping, which can otherwise damage the dam or lead to downstream flooding.

Overflow dams often include spillways—engineered channels that guide excess water
safely downstream. These spillways can be either free-flow (where water flows over the dam
crest without restriction) or controlled (using gates to regulate water flow). Materials like
concrete are frequently used to construct overflow dams due to their ability to withstand the
erosive force of flowing water.

Key Features of Overflow Dams:

• Water flows over the top of the dam structure.

• They include spillways to control water release.

• Constructed using materials that can resist erosion, like concrete.

Applications:

• Commonly used in flood-prone areas.

• Can help regulate river flow, ensuring that excess water is safely diverted
downstream during peak flow periods.

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IV. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MATERIAL
A. Rigid Dams

Rigid dams are dam structures that derive their strength from their own rigidity and are
built using materials that provide high structural stiffness. The rigid types of dams are,

1. Solid masonry or concrete gravity dam

2. Arched masonry or concrete dam

3. Buttress dam

4. Steel dam and timber dam

B. Non-rigid Dams

Non-rigid dams, also known as embankment dams, rely on their mass and slope stability
rather than material stiffness to resist water pressure. These dams are typically constructed
from natural materials such as earth, rock, or a combination of both, which makes them more
flexible in design and often more economical to construct than rigid dams. The most common
types of non-rigid are:

I. Earth dams
II. Rockfill dams.
III. Combined earth and rockfill

V. GRAVITY DAMS
A gravity dam is a solid concrete or masonry structures which ensure stability against
all applied loads by its weight alone without depending on arch beam action. Such dams
are usually straight in plan and approximately triangular in cross section. Gravity dams
up to 100 ft (30.48 m) in height are generally considered as low dams, height between
100 ft (30.48 m) and 300 ft (91.44) are designated as medium-height and height higher
than 300 ft (91.44 m) are considered as high dams. The design of gravity dams ensures
that each section is stable and independent, primarily utilizing unreinforced concrete
monoliths with sealed joints. This approach allows the dam to effectively counteract the
forces exerted by the water, relying on the mass and rigidity of the concrete structure.
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Source: https://dailyinfographic.com/the-most-common-types-of-dams-explained
Figure 5. Components of Gravity Dam

Based on the Figure 5, there are 9 components of gravity dam, and these are crest (A),
heel (B), toe (C), foundation (D), spillway (E), gallery (F), outlet (G), blowoff (H), and
freeboard (I).
A. Components of Gravity Dam
Gravity dams are massive structures designed to hold back water by utilizing their own
weight to resist the horizontal pressure of the water. The stability of a gravity dam is
primarily dependent on its shape, material, and structural components. Each component
plays a critical role in ensuring the dam's functionality, safety, and durability. These
components work together to ensure the dam remains secure and functions effectively over
time. Below are the key components of gravity dam:

a. Crest (A) – The top of the dam, in some cases used to provide a roadway or walkway
over the dam.
b. Heel (B) – The part of the dam in contact with ground on the upstream side.
c. Toe (C) – The part of the dam in contact with ground on the downstream side.
d. Foundation (D) – Excavated surface or undisturbed material.
e. Spillway (E) – Structure that provides for controlled conveyance of water flows
downstream of the dam.
f. Gallery (F) – Small room within large dams used to monitor the performance of the
dam, with a drain on the floor for water seepage.
g. Outlet (G) – Also called sluiceway, used to release water from the reservoir for water
supply, irrigation, and hydro power.
h. Blowoff (H) – Opening within the dam near the base to drain the reservoir.
i. Freeboard (I) – Vertical distance between the spillway level and crest of the dam.

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Source: https://www.watereducation.org/aquapedia/hoover-dam
Figure 6. Example of Gravity Dam

Figure 6 shows one of the examples of gravity dam. Hoover Dam, one of the tallest dams
in the United States and a National Historic Landmark that draws tourists from across the
globe, is a key reservoir providing flood control, water storage and irrigation along the
lower Colorado River. Hoover Dam is 726 feet (221 meters) high and 1,244 feet (379 meters)
long at the crest.

B. Forces acting on Gravity Dam

Forces acting on a gravity dam are crucial to its stability and performance. The primary
forces include water pressure, which pushes the dam downstream, and the dam's self-
weight, which provides resistance. Other forces, like uplift pressure from water seeping
under the dam, seismic forces and etc., also play a role. These forces must be carefully
considered in the design to prevent sliding, overturning, or structural failure.
a. Vertical Forces
1. Weight of the Dam
W = [(V)(c)] (EQ.1)
2. Weight of water
W = [(V)(w)] (EQ.2)
3. Hydrostatic Uplift
U = [(V)(w)] (EQ.3)
Where: W = weight of water or dam (kN or N)
U = hydrostatic uplift force (kN or N)
w = unit weight of water
c = unit weight of concrete, Specific Gravity of concrete = 2.4 (if not given)
V = volume
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b. Horizontal Forces
1. Total Hydrostatic force acting at the vertical projection of the submerged portion of
the dam,
F = [(w) (ħ)(A)] or F = [(1/2) (w*h) (h)(1)] (EQ.4)
2. Wind pressure
3. Wave action
4. Earthquake Load

C. Modes of Failure: Stability Requirements

Gravity dams, which rely on their mass to resist the forces exerted by water, must meet
key stability requirements to avoid failure. The primary modes of failure include:
a. Overturning - Horizontal and vertical forces such as water pressure, wave pressure,
silt pressure, ice pressure, and uplift pressure can act against a gravity dam, creating
overturning force or rotation of the structure. For stability requirements, the dam
must be safe against overturning. The factor of safety against overturning is defined
as the ratio of the righting moment to the overturning moments. The factor of safety
against overturning should greater than 2.

𝑹𝑴
FSO= >𝟐 (EQ.5)
𝑶𝑴

b. Sliding - A dam will fail in sliding at its base, or at any other level, if the horizontal
forces causing sliding are more than the resistance available to it at that level. The
resistance against sliding may be due to friction alone, or due to friction and shear
strength of the joint. Shear strength also comes into play because of the interlocking
of stone in masonry dams. The coefficient of friction μ varies from 0.65 to 0.75. The
factor of safety against sliding should be greater than 1.5.
𝛍 (𝑭𝒗)
FSS= > 𝟏. 𝟓 (EQ.6)
(𝑭𝒙)

c. Structural failure - occurs when the tensile or compressive stresses in the dam exceed
the strength of the materials that compose the dam. Masonry and concrete are weak
in tension, so masonry and concrete gravity dams are designed to minimize tension
in the structure. Steel bars, known as rebar, are incorporated within the concrete
during construction to resist anticipated tensile forces.

D. Pressure Distribution at the Base

The pressure distribution at the base of a gravity dam plays a critical role in ensuring
its stability and safety. This distribution is influenced by the forces acting on the dam,
primarily the weight of the structure and the hydrostatic pressure of the water behind it.
In a well-designed gravity dam, the pressure is typically highest near the toe
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(downstream side) and decreases toward the heel (upstream side). The base pressure
distribution is ideally linear, ensuring the resultant force remains within the middle third
of the dam's base to prevent excessive tensile stresses, sliding, or overturning.
In an ideal situation, the resulting pressure at the base of the dam is balanced, with
compressive forces within allowable limits, preventing sliding or overturning. The shape
and weight of the dam are designed to maintain this stability under varying conditions.
a. Resultant at the middle of the base.

Source: Hydraulics Engineering.pdf

Figure 7. Pressure Distribution Resultant at the middle of the base

When the resultant force acts at the middle of the base of a gravity dam, it signifies an
ideal balance between the dam's weight and the water pressure. In this scenario, the
pressure distribution is uniform across the base, minimizing the risk of both sliding and
overturning. The resultant at the center ensures that compressive stresses are evenly
distributed, reducing the likelihood of tension, which can lead to cracking or structural
failure. This balanced condition helps maintain the dam's overall stability and safety.
b. Resultant at the middle thirds nearer the toe

Source: Hydraulics Engineering.pdf

Figure 8. Pressure Distribution Resultant at the middle thirds nearer the toe

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When the resultant force (the combined effect of water pressure and the weight of
the dam) falls within the middle third of the dam’s base, particularly closer to the toe
(downstream edge), it indicates stable conditions. This ensures that the dam remains
balanced and that compressive stresses dominate, preventing tensile stresses, which can
cause cracking. A resultant near the toe implies the dam is withstanding water pressure
effectively without risk of overturning, as the force remains within the dam's structural
limits, keeping it safely anchored to its foundation.
c. Resultant outside the middle-thirds

Source: Hydraulics Engineering.pdf

Figure 9. Pressure Distribution Resultant outside the middle-thirds

When the resultant force falls outside the middle third of a gravity dam's base, it
indicates potential instability. If the resultant is too close to the heel (upstream edge), it can
lead to excessive uplift and even tension in the structure, causing cracks. If it shifts too far
toward the toe (downstream edge), it increases the risk of overturning or sliding. Such an
unbalanced force distribution creates uneven pressure at the base, which can compromise
the dam's structural integrity, leading to potential failure or damage.
d. Resultant within the middle thirds

Source: Hydraulics Engineering.pdf

Figure 10. Pressure Distribution Resultant within the middle thirds
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When the resultant force falls within the middle third of a gravity dam’s base, it
indicates a stable and well-balanced structure. This positioning ensures that compressive
stresses dominate, preventing the development of tensile stresses, which could lead to
cracking. This is the optimal condition for the dam's stability, ensuring the structure can
effectively resist both its own weight and the water pressure.
The location of the resultant force Ry in a gravity dam is crucial for assessing the
stability and ensuring the dam's safety against overturning and excessive stress. In order to
get the location of Ry, you need to know the value of x̄ .

RM−OM
x̄ = (EQ.7)
𝑅𝑦

Foundation Pressure Condition 1:

B
when e ≤ (Trapezoidal soil pressure distribution)
6
Ry 6e
q = 𝐵(1𝑚) (1 ± ) (EQ.8)
𝐵
Foundation Pressure Condition 2:
B
when e > 6
2 Ry
q = 3(x̄ )(1𝑚) (EQ.9)

Advantages of gravity dams

1. Gravity dams are relatively stronger and more stable than earth dams.
2. Gravity dams are well adapted for use as an overflow spillway crest. Earth dams
cannot be used as overflow dams. Due to this, a gravity overflow dam is often used for
the spillway feature of earth and rockfill dams.
3. A gravity dam requires the least maintenance.
4. The failure of a gravity dam, if any, is not sudden. It gives enough warning time before
the area to downstream side is flooded due to the damage to the gravity dams. On the
contrary, an earth dam generally fails suddenly.
5. A gravity dam is cheaper in the long run since it is more permanent than any other
type. Thus, the benefit-cost ratio of such a dam is always higher.

Disadvantages of gravity dams

1. Gravity dams can be constructed only on sound rock foundations. They are unsuitable
on weak foundations or on permeable foundations on which earth dams can be
constructed with suitable foundation treatment.
2. If mechanized plants, such as manufacturing and transporting mass concrete, curing
of concrete etc. are not available, a gravity dam may take more time to construct.

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Example:
For the gravity dam with cross section shown, determine: Factor of safety against
sliding, Factor of safety against overturning, Stress of foundation at the toe of dam, Stress of
foundation at the heel of dam. Assume the uplift to vary linearly from full hydrostatic
pressure at the toe to full hydrostatic pressure at the heel, coefficient of friction in sliding is
0.65.

Source: Hydraulic Engineering.pdf

Figure 11. Example Problem

Solution: (Considering 1m length)

Source: Hydraulic Engineering.pdf

Figure 12. Free Body Diagram

FORCES MAGNITUDE (kN) Moment Resisting Overturning

Arm Moment Moment
about toe (kN.m) (kN.m)
(m)
W1 = (4)(20)(1) (2.4*9.81) = 1,883.52 18 33,903.36
W2 = (1/2) (16)(20)(1) (2.4*9.81) = 3,767.04 32/3 40,181.76
W3 = (1/2) (2.4) (1.92) (1) (9.81) = 22.6 1.92/3 14.46
F1 = (1/2) (18.8*9.81) (18.8) (1) = 1,733.62 18.8/3 10,864.02
F2 = (1/2) (2.4*9.81) (2.4) (9.81) = 28.25 2.4/3 22.6
U1 = (1/2) (18.8 – 2.4) (9.81) (20) (1) = 1,608.84 40/3 21,451.2
U2 = (2.4*9.81) (20) (1) = 470.88 10 4,708.8
TOTAL 74,122.18 37,024.02

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Ry = W1 + W2 + W3 – U1 – U2 = 3,593.44 kN
Rx = F1 – F2 = 1,705.37 kN

1. Factor of Safety against sliding

(0.65) (3,593.44)
FSS= = 1.37 < 1.5 (𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑 ), 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎 𝑘𝑒𝑦
(1,705.37)

2. Factor of Safety against overturning

74,122.18
FSO= = 2.002 > 2 (𝑜𝑘!)
37,024.02

3. Location of Ry at the base of dam from the toe

74,122.18−37,024.02 𝐵 𝐵
x̄ = = 10.32 > <
3,593.44 3 2

B 20 𝐵
e = x̄ − = 10.32 − = 0.32 < (Trapezoidal soil pressure distribution)
2 2 6

Therefore, Ry is within middle third, thus the base of the dam is under a compression
pressure.

Stresses at the base of Dam

Source: Hydraulic Engineering.pdf

Figure 13. Stress Distribution at the base of Dam

3,593.44 6(0.32)
q𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (20)(1𝑚) (1 + ) = 196.92 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (toe)
20
3,593.44 6(0.32)
q𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (20)(1𝑚) (1 − ) = 162.42 kPa (heel)
20

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VI. BUTTRESS DAMS

Buttress dams are a type of dam built using several triangular shaped buttresses to
support the dam against the force of the water. They are a relatively uncommon type of dam
compared to arch or gravity dams. Buttress dams contain thick, angled vertical walls called
buttresses that support the upstream face of the dam. The buttresses connect to the dam
core wall and help resist the water pressure. The triangular shaped buttresses transfer the
water load to the dam foundation. The spaces between the buttresses are usually left open
but can be filled in with concrete or rockfill materials. The buttresses and core wall work
together to divert stresses safely downward into the foundation. Buttress dams require less
concrete and materials than gravity dams, but they are more structurally complex to design
and build.

Source: https://dailyinfographic.com/the-most-common-types-of-dams-explained
Figure 14. Components of Buttress
Dam
Based on the Figure 14, there are 8 components of buttress dam, and these are crest
(A), heel (B), toe (C), foundation (D), spillway (E), outlet (G), blowoff (H), and freeboard (I).

A. Components of Buttress Dam

Each component plays a crucial role in ensuring the dam’s strength, stability, and
functionality. These components work together to ensure the dam remains secure and
functions effectively over time. Its main components include:
a. Crest (A) – The top of the dam, in some cases used to provide a roadway or walkway
over the dam.
b. Heel (B) – The part of the dam in contact with ground on the upstream side.
c. Toe (C) – The part of the dam in contact with ground on the downstream side.

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d. Foundation (D) – Excavated surface or undisturbed material.
e. Spillway (E) – Structure that provides for controlled conveyance of water flows
downstream of the dam.
f. Outlet (G) – Alse called sluiceway, used to release water from the reservoir for water
supply, irrigation, and hydro power.
g. Blowoff (H) – Opening within the dam near the base to drain the reservoir.
h. Freeboard (I) – Vertical distance between the spillway level and crest of the dam.

Source: https://www.britannica.com/technology/buttress-dam
Figure 15. Example of Buttress Dam

Figure 15 shows one of the examples of buttress dam. Several variations are possible
in the design of buttress dams, with most modifications occurring at the junction between
the buttresses at the water face. Where no relative movement in the buttress foundations is
anticipated, the design can link individual buttress heads rigidly, by means of arches, to form
a multiple-arch buttress dam. A Canadian example of this type is the 214-metre- (703-foot-)
high multiple-arch Daniel-Johnson Dam on the Manicouagan River in Quebec. The dam,
which was completed in 1968, uses a total of 14 buttresses in its crest length of 1,314 meters
(4,311 feet); two significantly larger buttresses support the structure over the original
riverbed. The multiple-dome buttress dam is similar to multiple-arch buttress dams, but
relies on domes instead of arches.
Advantages of Buttress Dams
1. The Buttress dam can be constructed on a relatively weak foundation.
2. Buttress dams can be designed to fit in moderate amounts of foundation movement
without serious damages, thus it can be built in the soil with differential settlements.
3. The amount of concrete required for a buttress dam is about 1/3 to ½ of the concrete
required for a gravity dam of the same height

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Disadvantages of Buttress Dams
1. Skilled labor requirements and the shuttering concrete ratio are greater than for
solid dams. This may lead to higher limit rates and to offset some of the saving due to
reduction in the quantity of concrete.
2. It requires constant maintenance and supervision.
3. The number of water seals to be provided and maintained for a buttress dam is
usually more than for other dams.

VII. ARCH DAM

Arch dam, a thick shell dam that derives considerable strength from its curved
profile. Typically built in river gorges, canyons, and valleys, and have the form of a horizontal
arch in which the convex side is upstream and abuts against the side walls of the gorge. The
design relies on arch action, meaning the water pressure pushing against the dam is
transferred to the valley walls (abutments), which absorb and counteract the forces. Unlike
gravity dams, which rely on their weight, arch dams are able to resist water pressure through
their shape and the strength of the surrounding geological features.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Figure-43-cross-section-of-arch-dam_fig21_345504582

Figure 16. Cross Section of an Arch Dam

A. Materials Used
a. Concrete is the primary material used in arch dams, chosen for its strength and
durability. The ability to mold concrete into curved shapes makes it ideal for the
precise engineering required in arch dam construction.

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b. Reinforced concrete with steel may be used in some cases to increase the dam’s ability
to withstand dynamic loads, such as floods or seismic activity, which is important for
ensuring the stability of irrigation systems.

B. Design Variations
Arch dams are classified based on the shape of their curvature, which affects how they
distribute water pressure and fit into different valley geometries. Each type offers distinct
advantages depending on site conditions and water storage requirements. Below is a
detailed explanation of the three primary types: Constant Radius Arch Dams, Variable Radius
Arch Dams, and Double Curvature Arch Dams.

a. Constant Radius arch dam: it has the same radius of curvature from the base to the
crest, making it relatively simple to design and construct. This uniform curvature
allows water pressure to be evenly transferred to the abutments (the valley walls) on
both sides, ensuring stability. These dams are best suited for symmetrical or uniform
valleys where the width between the walls does not vary much along the height of the
dam. Due to their straightforward design, construction is more manageable, but they
require strong and stable abutments to support the water pressure. An example of
this concept can be seen in sections of the Hoover Dam in the USA. Although not
purely constant in curvature throughout, the principle applies to its design at various
heights.

source: https://civilengineeringnotes.com/arch-dam-types/

Figure 17. Cross Section of a Constant Radius Arch Dam

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b. Variable Radius Arch Dam: the radius of curvature changes with height, decreasing as
the dam rises. This design is ideal for irregular or asymmetrical valleys where the
width varies at different elevations. By having a larger curvature at the base and a
tighter one toward the crest, the dam can handle dynamic changes in water pressure
more effectively. The upper sections of the dam, with tighter curvature, provide
additional stability during periods of high-water levels. Though more efficient in
material usage compared to constant-radius designs, variable radius dams require
precise engineering and careful construction to ensure structural integrity. The
Mauvoisin Dam in Switzerland is an example of this type, built to adapt to the varying
shape of the surrounding valley.

Source: https://civilseek.com/arch-dam/

Figure 18. Cross Section of a Variable Radius Arch Dam

c. Double Curvature Arch Dam: it curves both horizontally and vertically, creating a
saddle-shaped structure that offers exceptional efficiency in withstanding water
pressure. This design allows the dam to distribute load both horizontally (toward the
valley walls) and vertically (downward to the foundation), reducing stress at any
single point. Double curvature dams are ideal for narrow and steep valleys where the
height of the dam is significant, and the abutments are strong enough to handle the
water pressure. However, these dams are complex and demand high levels of
precision during construction, making them more expensive and time-consuming to
build. A notable example is the Idukki Dam in India, where this design maximizes both
stability and water storage capacity

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Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Dam-overhanging-effect-of-the-double-curvature-arch-
dam_fig3_369876269

Figure 19. Cross Section of a Double Curvature Arch Dam

C. Site Requirements for Irrigation Arch Dams

Arch dams require specific site conditions to function effectively in irrigation systems:
a. Narrow Valleys: Arch dams are most suitable for narrow, steep valleys where the rock
walls can bear the lateral pressure of the water.

b. Strong Rock Foundations: The valley walls, or abutments, must consist of strong rock
formations to support the forces transferred from the dam. A stable geological
foundation is crucial for long-term irrigation projects, where the dam’s failure could
jeopardize water supply.

c. Proximity to Agricultural Areas: Ideally, arch dams should be located close to

agricultural lands to minimize the distance that water must travel, reducing losses in
distribution and improving efficiency.

Advantages of Arch Dams

1. Efficient Use of Materials
• Less concrete is needed compared to gravity or earth dams because the curved
structure redirects the water's force to the abutments (the sides of the valley
or canyon).
• This makes them more economical for narrow, rocky gorges.

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2. Strong and Stable Design
• The arch shape distributes the water pressure evenly across the entire dam,
reducing the stress on any single part.
• Arch dams are highly resistant to cracking and structural deformation.
3. Suitable for Narrow Valleys
• Ideal for steep, narrow valleys where the surrounding rock walls can support
the dam by acting as abutments.
4. Good Seismic Resistance
• Due to their flexibility and load-distribution properties, arch dams can
withstand earthquakes better than some other types of dams.
5. Minimal Environmental Impact Downstream
• The smaller volume of material required reduces environmental disturbance
compared to large earth or rockfill dams.
6. Aesthetic Appeal
• Arch dams have a sleek and visually appealing design, often blending well with
their natural surroundings.

Disadvantages of Arch Dams

1. Site Constraints
• Arch dams can only be built in narrow, steep valleys with strong rock
formations to support the thrust of the water.
• They are unsuitable for wide river valleys or areas with soft, unstable
foundations.
2. Complex and Expensive Construction
• The construction of arch dams requires precision engineering and advanced
construction techniques, making it more complex and costly than simpler dam
types like earth dams.
3. Specialized Material and Labor
• High-quality concrete and skilled labor are required to ensure the structural
integrity of the curved design.
4. Risk of Failure in Poor Geology

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• If the surrounding abutments are weak or improperly assessed, the dam’s
safety can be compromised. The entire structure depends on the strength of
the adjacent rock.
5. Limited Water Storage Capacity
• Arch dams are typically not suitable for large reservoirs because they are
limited to narrow valleys and gorges.
6. Maintenance and Repairs Can Be Challenging
• The curved structure makes inspection and repairs more difficult compared
to flat-faced dams.

Arch dams represent an efficient and effective solution for water storage and
management, especially in regions with narrow valleys and strong rock formations. While
their site-specific requirements limit their construction to particular locations, their
strength, durability, and material efficiency make them a valuable infrastructure for
irrigation and water management projects. For regions that can accommodate their design,
arch dams offer long-term benefits in terms of water conservation, flood control, and
hydroelectric power generation.

VIII. EARTH DAM

Earth dams, also known as embankment dams, are among the oldest and most widely used
types of dams for irrigation purposes. Constructed primarily from natural materials such as soil, sand,
gravel, and clay, these dams are relatively simple in design and cost-effective. Earth dams play a crucial
role in water storage for irrigation systems, flood control, and providing a reliable water supply to
agricultural areas.

A. Types of Earth Dams based on method of construction

Among various types of embankment dams, Rolled Fill Dams and Hydraulic Fill Dams are commonly
used depending on the construction environment and available resources.

a. Rolled Fill Dam: it is built by placing and compacting layers of soil, rock, or gravel using heavy
machinery like rollers. The dam can be classified as either earthfill or rockfill, depending on
the primary material used.
b. Hydraulic Fill Dams: are constructed by transporting soil materials as a slurry (a mixture of
water and soil) to the dam site. As the slurry settles, the finer materials form the impermeable
core, while the coarser materials shift outward to create the dam’s shell.

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B. Types of Earth Dams

a. Homogeneous Dam - A homogeneous dam is constructed entirely from one type of

soil, typically a fine-grained material such as clay or silt, which is relatively
impervious and can effectively prevent water from seeping through the structure.
This simple design is straightforward to build, as it does not require multiple layers
or specialized zones, making it a good option for smaller dams or projects with limited
material availability. However, since the entire dam is made from the same type of
soil, it is essential to monitor the structure for cracks or settlements, which can
develop over time due to uneven compaction or drying. Additionally, seepage control
may require drainage filters or blankets to relieve water pressure at the downstream
face. While homogeneous dams are easy to build, their reliance on a single material
type can make them more vulnerable to weakening if saturated, leading to potential
instability or failure.

b. Zoned Dam - A zoned dam is constructed with multiple layers of different materials,
each performing a specific function to optimize the dam's performance. The inner
core of the dam is made of an impervious material such as clay, which acts as the
primary barrier to prevent water seepage. Surrounding the core are transition
zones—layers of finer material that protect the core from contamination and mixing
with the coarser outer layers. The outer shell is made from pervious materials like
gravel or rock, providing structural stability and resistance to environmental factors
like erosion. A drainage system is often embedded within the outer layers to manage
any water that seeps through, ensuring the stability of the structure. Zoned dams are
ideal for projects where diverse materials are available nearby, as they allow the
efficient use of these resources. However, the construction process is complex and
time-consuming, requiring careful planning and precision to place and compact the
different zones properly. This design ensures high stability and effective seepage
control, making it suitable for larger, more challenging projects.

c. Diaphragm Wall Embankment - This is a modification over the homogeneous

embankment, in which the bulk of the embankment is constructed of pervious
material and a thin diaphragm of impermeable material is provided to check the
seepage. The diaphragm may be of impervious soil, cement concrete, bituminous
concrete, or any other material, and may be placed either at the center of the section
as a central vertical core, or at the upstream face as a blanket. However, the
distinction between a diaphragm type and zoned type must be clearly known. If the
horizontal thickness of the diaphragm (made of impervious soil) at any elevation is
less than 10 m or less than the height of embankment above any corresponding
elevation in the dam, the dam is of the diaphragm type. If the impervious earth
diaphragm equals or exceeds these thicknesses, the dam is considered to be ‘zoned
embankment’ type.

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Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/1-Different-types-of-earth-dams-a-Homogeneous-dam-
made-out-of-impermeable-material_fig3_366845504
Figure 20. Examples of Type of Dams

C. Basic Components of an Earth Dam

An earth dam is a type of embankment dam constructed primarily from compacted
soil and rock materials. Its stability relies on the careful design and arrangement of
different components, each serving a specific function to ensure the dam's strength,
impermeability, and resistance to water pressure. The key components of an earth dam
include the embankment (main body), core (impervious section), filter and drainage
system (to control seepage), toe and heel (structural bases), and spillway (for controlled
water release). These elements work together to provide structural integrity, prevent
seepage, and manage water flow effectively.
a. Crest – it is the top surface of the dam, serving as a walkway, roadway, or inspection
path. It provides access for maintenance and monitoring activities. The width of the
crest depends on the size and purpose of the dam, ensuring adequate space for
vehicles or equipment if needed.
b. Core - It is made up of the fine-grained soil. Its purpose is to control seepage through
the dam.
c. Shell - It is usually constructed with coarse grained material. The shell provides
stability to the dam.
d. Cut off barrier – This prevents seepage through the foundation of the dam.
e. Transition filters - The transition filters are so designed that they are more permeable
than the soil they protect and yet their particles are not so coarse that the fine
particles of the protected soil can move and travel through the voids in the filter.
f. Internal drains - An internal drain may be horizontal, vertical or inclined. Its purpose
is to intercept the seepage flow and prevent it from exiting from the downstream
slope of the dam.
g. Slope protection – It protects the upstream and downstream slope against erosion.
The upstream slope of the dam may get washed away by the wave action of water in
the reservoir and the downstream slope may get washed away by the heavy rain.

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h. Toe drainage - All the seepage water exits at the toe of the dam and therefore it is
usually always wet. It is made using cobbles to boulders size material.

Source: https://i0.wp.com/civilpracticalknowledge.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/20220704_145050-
scaled.jpg?ssl=1
Figure 21. Components of Earth Dams

Advantages of Earth Dams in Irrigation

1. Cost-Effective Construction
One of the primary advantages of earth dams is their cost-effectiveness. Since they are made
from locally available materials (such as soil and rock), earth dams are often less expensive
to build compared to concrete or arch dams. This makes them an attractive option for
irrigation projects in rural areas with limited financial resources.
• Simple Construction Techniques: Earth dams can be built using relatively simple
construction methods and equipment, making them feasible even in developing
regions with limited access to advanced technology.

2. Adaptability to Various Site Conditions

Earth dams are highly adaptable and can be built in a wide range of geographical conditions,
from flat terrains to gentle slopes. This flexibility allows them to be constructed in areas
where other types of dams, such as arch or gravity dams, might not be feasible due to
topography or foundation requirements.
3. Environmental Integration
Since earth dams are made from natural materials, they tend to blend into the surrounding
environment better than concrete or masonry dams. This helps preserve the natural
aesthetics of rural agricultural landscapes and minimizes the environmental impact.

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Limitations of Earth Dams for Irrigation
1. Seepage and Erosion Risks
One of the primary concerns with earth dams is the risk of seepage and erosion. If water
seeps through or under the dam, it can weaken the structure, potentially leading to a breach
or failure. Proper engineering techniques are essential to control seepage, but ongoing
maintenance is often required to ensure long-term stability.
• Piping: A serious form of erosion that occurs when water seeps through the dam,
creating channels or "pipes" that can lead to structural failure if not addressed.

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mIm13hrBoMs

Figure 22. Piping in Earth Dams

2. Susceptibility to Overtopping
Earth dams are vulnerable to overtopping during extreme flood events. If the water level
exceeds the dam’s height, the embankment can erode rapidly, leading to catastrophic failure.
Proper spillway design and flood management measures are critical to prevent overtopping.
3. Limited Height
Earth dams are generally limited in height compared to concrete or arch dams. While they
can store large volumes of water, their structural stability decreases as height increases,
making them less suitable for very deep valleys or high-water storage demands.
4. Maintenance Requirements
Due to the natural materials used in construction, earth dams require regular maintenance
to manage seepage, prevent erosion, and maintain the integrity of the embankment. This can
include vegetation management, repairing minor erosion, and monitoring seepage points to
prevent failure.

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Earth dams are a cost-effective and flexible solution for irrigation projects,
particularly in regions where natural materials are readily available and financial resources
are limited. Their ability to store large amounts of water, regulate water flow for irrigation,
and protect agricultural areas from flooding makes them an important infrastructure in
water management for agriculture. While they require proper engineering and ongoing
maintenance to prevent seepage and erosion, their advantages in adaptability and cost make
them suitable for a wide range of irrigation applications.

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X. References

Fang, X., & Sun, W. (2019). "Irrigation and Diversion Dams: Water Management Systems in
Arid Regions." Water Resources Management, 33(12), 4071–4084.
Fread, D. L. (2007). "Flood Routing and Detention Dams in Watershed Management." Water
Resources Research, 43(5), 1257-1271.
Knowledge, C. P. (2022, July 6). Types Of Dams » Civil Practical Knowledge. Civil practical
knowledge. https://civilpracticalknowledge.com/types-of-dams/
Mays, L. W. (2010). Water Resources Engineering. John Wiley & Sons.
Mays, L. W. (2011). Water Resources Engineering. John Wiley & Sons.
Novák, P., Moffat, A. I. B., Nalluri, C., & Narayanan, R. (2007). Hydraulic Structures. CRC Press.
Punmia, B. C., Lal, P. B. B. (2021). Irrigation and Water Power Engineering (17th edition).
Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.
Tausif_K. (2020, May 6). Introduction of dams [Slide show]. SlideShare.
https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/introduction-of-dams-
233258762/233258762#4

United States Bureau of Reclamation. (2012). Design of Small Dams. U.S. Government
Printing Office.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1996). Hydrologic Engineering for Dams: Principles and
Practices.
Wang, H., & Jia, Y. (2020). "Dams and Water Storage in Irrigation Systems." Journal of
Hydrology, 585, 124587.

World Commission on Dams (2000). Dams and Development: A New Framework for
Decision-Making. Earthscan Publications Ltd.

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