Chapter Four

DC MACHINES AND THEIR PRINCIPLES OF

OPERATION
Introduction and Application
Three electrical Machines (dc, induction & synchronous)
are used extensively for electromechanical energy
conversion.
In these machines, conversion of energy results from the
following two electromagnetic phenomena:
1. When a conductor moves in a magnetic field voltage is
induced in the conductor (generator action)
2. When a cur rent –car r ying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical
force (Motor action)
DC machines
• In electrical system the primary quantities involved are
voltage and current
• While in mechanical system, the analogous quantities are
torque and speed.
• In the generator mode the machine is driven by a prime
mover with the mechanical power converted into electrical
power.
• While in the motor mode, the machine drives a mechanical
load with the electrical power supplied converted into
mechanical power.
• The dc motors are finding increasing applications, especially
where large magnitude and precisely controlled torque is
required.
Cont,d…
• Such motors are used in rolling mills, in overhead
cranes and for traction purpose like in forklift
trucks, electric vehicles, and electric trains.
Construction
• The dc machines used for industrial applications
have essentially three major parts:
a) Field system (Stator)
b) Armature (Rotor) and
c) Commutator
Field System (stator)
Ø The field system is located on the stationary part of the
machine called stator.
Ø The field system is designated for producing magnetic
flux and, therefore, provides the necessary excitation for
operation of machine.
Ø The stator of dc machines comprises of
1. Main Poles
2. Inter-poles
3. Frame (Yoke)
Frame (yoke )
• The stator of a dc machines consists of a frame or yoke, and
poles, which support the field windings.
• The frame or yoke in addition to being a part of a magnetic
circuit serves as mechanical support for entire assembly.
Main Poles
• The pole shoes support the field coils placed on the pole
body.
• Spread the total flux over a greater area, thereby reduce the
air gap reluctance and giving the desired flux distribution to
limit saturation in the teeth of the armature.
• Inter Poles
• To improve commutation under loaded conditions.
• They are arranged midway between the mains poles and are
bolted to the yolk.
Armature
§ The armature is the rotating part (rotor) of the dc machine
where the process of electromechanical energy conversion
takes pace.
§ It is a cylindrical body, which rotates between the magnetic
poles.
§ The armature and the field system are separated from each
other by an air gap.
§ The armature consists of:
Ø Armature core with slots and
Ø Armature winding accommodated in slots
§ The purpose of the armature is to rotate the conductors in the
uniform magnetic field and to induce an alternating emf in its
winding.
Commutator
ØThe commutator is mounted on the rotor of a DC
machine and it performs with help of brushes a
mechanical rectification of power from
• AC to DC in case of generators and
• DC to AC in case of motors.
ØThe ends of armature coils are connected to the
commutator, which together with the brushes
rectifies the alternating emf induced in the armature
coils and helps in the collection of current.
Brushes
ØBrushes are needed to collect the current from the
rotating commutator or to lead the current to it.
Types of DC machines
• It can work as an electromechanical energy converter only
when its field winding is excited with direct current, except
for small dc machines employing permanent magnets.
• According to the method of their field excitation dc machines
are classified into the following group:
a) separately excited and b) self excited
a) Separately Excited
• Its field winding consists of several hundreds turns of fine
wire and is connected to a separate or external dc source i.e.
field winding are energized from an independent external
sources of dc current.
b) Self Excitation
• When the field winding is excited by its own armature, the
machines is said to be a self excited dc machine.
• Its field poles must have a residual magnetism, so that when
the armature rotates, a residual voltage appears across the
brushes.
According the connection of the field winding with the armature
winding, a self-excited dc machine can be sub-divided as
follows:
i. Series Excitation
ii. Shunt Excitation and
iii. Compound Excitation
Series Excitation
The field winding consists of a few turns of thick wire and is
connected in series with the armature.
Fig.2 Series excited dc machine
ii. Shunt Excitation
• The field winding consists of a large number of turns of fine
wire and is connected in parallel (or in shunt) with the
armature.
• Therefore the voltage across the armature terminals and the
shunt field is the same and it is for this reason that a shunt
field may be called voltage operated field.

Fig.3 Shunt excited dc machine

iii. Compound Excitation
• A compound excitation involves both series-exited winding
and the shunt excited winding.
• From the point view of connections, a dc compound machine
may have short-shunt connection or a long shunt connection.

fig. 4(a) Short-Shunt Compound

DC Generator
Ø DC generators are dc machines
used as generators
Ø An electrical generator is a
machine, which converts
mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
Ø The energy conversion is based on
principle of dynamically induced
emf, whenever a conductor cuts
magnetic flux, dynamically
induced emf is produced in it
(Faraday’s law).
Ø This emf causes a current to flow if
the conductor is closed.
Ø The basic essential parts of an
electrical generator are:
§ A magnetic Field and
§ A conductor or conductors, which
can so move as to cut the flux.
Cont’d…

Ø According to Faraday’s laws of

electromagnetic induction, an
emf will be induced in the
rotating coil and is given by
e=βLVsinθ.
Ø Hence under the given
conditions, the change in the
magnitude of induced emf with
time depends upon the
magnetic flux density
distribution under the poles.
Ø Emf induced in the coil varies
with time as a sine function.
Cont’d…
Right-hand
Rule
• If the machine has P poles and
the armature rotates at N
revolutions per minute, then
the frequency of the induced
emf in the armature is,

The direction of the induced emf in this case

can be determined by Fleming’s right
hand rule
Cont’d…

Ø The output voltage or the current of dc generator must be

unidirectional and that too of a constant value.
Ø Thus to compel the above alternating current to flow in one
stipulated direction through the external load circuit, the dc
machine is fur nished with a special device called the
commutator.
Direction of conductor in a magnetic flux:

Generating of ac voltage
The 0° position of the coil is defined as in (a)
where the coil sides move parallel to the flux
lines.

Figure : AC voltages obtained from above

direction of conductor
Ø Conductor move parallelly to lines of force  0 electrom.
induction.
ØConductor move perpendicularly to lines of force max.
AC MACHINES AND THEIR PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Induction (asynchronous) machines
Introduction
Ø The induction machine is the most rugged and the most widely
used machine in industry.
Ø It has a stator and a rotor mounted on bearings and separated from
the stator by an air gap.
Ø However, in the induction machine both stator winding and rotor
winding carry alternating current.
Ø The alternating current (ac) is supplied to the stator winding
machine.
Ø It can operate both as a motor and as a generator.
Ø It is used as a generator supplying electrical power to aload.
Ø The performance characteristics as a generator are not satisfactory
for most applications.
Ø The induction machine is extensively used as a motor in many
applications.
Advantages
• It has very simple and extremely rugged, almost
unbreakable construction (especially squirrel cage type).
• Its cost is low and it is very reliable.
• It has sufficiently high efficiency.
• In normal running condition, no brushes are needed, hence
frictional losses are reduced.
• It has a reasonably good power factor.
• It requires minimum of maintenance.
• It starts up from rest and needs no extra starting motor and
has not to be synchronized.
• Its starting arrangement is simple especially –for squirrel
cage type motor.
Disadvantage
• Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing some
of its efficiency.
• A Just like a dc shunt motor, its speed decreases
with increase in load.
• Its starting torque is somewhat inferior to that of a dc
shunt motor.
The induction motor is used in various sizes:
• Large three-phase induction motors are used in
pumps, fans, compressors, paper mills, textile mills
and so forth.
• Small single-phase induction motors are used in
many house hold appliances, such as blenders,
lawnmowers, juice mixers, washing machines,
refrigerators, and stereo turntables.
• Two-phase induction motors are used primarily as
servomotors in a control system.
Constructional Features
An induction motor has two main parts
1. A Stationary Stator
• consisting of a steel frame that supports a hollow,
cylindrical core
• core, constructed from stacked laminations, having a
number of evenly spaced slots, providing the space
for the stator winding
Cont’d…
2. A Revolving Rotor
Øcomposed of punched laminations, stacked to create a series of
rotor slots, providing space for the rotor winding
ØTwo basic design types depending on the rotor design
Øsquirrel-cage
Øwound-rotor

Squirrel cage rotor

Wound rotor

slip rings
Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Wound rotors
The squirrel cage motor has the following advantages as
compared with the wound rotor machine.
i. No slip rings, brush gear, short circuiting devices, rotor
terminals for starting rheostats are required. The star delta
starter is sufficient for staring.
ii. It has slightly higher efficiency.
iii. It is cheaper and rugged in construction
iv. It has better space factor for rotor slots, a shorter overhang and
consequently a smaller copper loss.
v. It has bare end rings, a larger space for fans and thus the
cooling conditions are better
vi. It has smaller rotor overhang leakage which gives a better
power factor and greater pull out torque and overload
capacity.
PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION
MOTOR
When the 3-phase stator winding are fed by a 3-phase supply
then a magnetic flux of constant magnitude but rotating at
synchronous speed , is set up.
The flux pass through the air gap sweeps past the rotor surface
and so cuts the rotor conductors which, as yet stationary.
Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the
stationary conductors, an emf is induced in the latter according to
Faraday’s laws of electro-magnetic induction.
The frequency of the induced e.m.f is the same as the supply
frequency.
Its magnitude is proportional to the relative speed between the
flux and the conductors and its direction is given by Fleming’s
Right-hand rule.
Since the rotor bars or conductors form a closed circuit, rotor
current is produced direction, as given by Lenz’s law is such as to
oppose the very cause producing it in this case, the cause which
produce the rotor current is relative speed between the rotating
Cont’d
Ø This results in greater rotor emf, rotor current and greater
developed torque. Thus, as the load is increased, the motor slows
down until the relative motion between the rotor and the rotating
magnetic field is just sufficient to result in the development of the
torque necessary for that particular load.
Ø Hence to reduce the relative speed, the rotor starts running in the
same direction as that of the flux and tries to cutch up with the
rotating flux.
Ø An induction motor running at no load will have a speed very close
to synchronous speed and therefore emf in the rotor winding will
be very small.
Ø This small emf gives a small current producing a torque just
sufficient to overcome the losses such as due to friction and
windage and maintain the rotor in rotation.
Ø As the mechanical load is applied on the motor shaft, it must slow
down because the torque developed at no load will not be
sufficient to keep the rotor revolving at the no load speed against
the additional opposing torque of load.
Ø As the motor slows down, the relative motion between the
magnetic field and the rotor is increased.