Basic Civil Engineering:

Surveying
Basics of Surveying
• Surveying Defined :
Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative
positions of points above, on, or beneath the earth’s surface
and locating the points in the field.
The primary aims of field surveying are:
• To measure the horizontal distance between points.
• To measure the vertical elevation between points.
• To find out the relative direction of lines by measuring horizontal
angles
• To find out absolute direction by measuring horizontal angles
with reference to fixed direction.
• These parameters are utilized to find out the relative or absolute
coordinates of a point / location.
Points to Discuss on Surveying
• Principles of surveying
• Uses of Surveying
• Map, Plan & Scale
• Divisions of surveying
The general principles of surveying are:
• To work from the whole to the part
• To locate a new station by at least two measurements (linear or
angular) from fixed reference points.
• The purpose of working from whole to part is “to localise the
errors and to control the accumulation of errors”.
• According to the first principle, the whole survey area is first enclosed by main stations and
main survey lines. The area is then divided into a number of divisions by forming well
conditioned triangles.
•To prepare the contour map to determine the best possible route
and amount of earthwork required.
USES OF SURVEYING:

• To prepare the engineering

map showing engineering
details like highways,
railways, canals, dams,
reservoirs, etc.
USES OF SURVEYING:
• Maps prepared for marking boundaries of countries, states,
districts etc., avoid disputes.
USES OF SURVEYING:
• To prepare the topographical map which shows hills, rivers,
forests, valleys, etc.

TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP
USES OF SURVEYING:
• For planning and estimating project works like roads, bridges, railways,
airports, water supply and waste water disposal surveying is required.
USES OF SURVEYING:
• Marine and hydro-graphic survey helps in planning navigation routes and
harbours.
USES OF SURVEYING:
• For preparing a military map showing different strategic points important for
the defence of a country.
USES OF SURVEYING:

• Mine surveys are required for

exploring mineral wealth.
USES OF SURVEYING:
• For preparing archaeological map showing the places where ancient
relics may have placed.

The lost City of

Dwarka
USES OF SURVEYING:
• Astronomical survey helps in the study of movements of planets and for
calculating local and standard times.

Spectrum of types
of observations
of Solar
System objects.
Map and Plan
• To show the relative positions of various objects on paper. Such
representations on paper is called plan or map.
• A plan may be defined as the graphical representation of the
features on, near or below the surface of the earth as
projected on a horizontal plane to a suitable scale.
• A map is a visual drawing of a whole region or some of a
locality that’s often shown on a flat surface.
Map
• There are many types of maps, together with static, two-dimensional, three-
dimensional, dynamic, and interactive maps.
• Physical characteristics, Political borders, roads, population, climates, geography,
natural resources, and economic activity are all shown on maps.
Different Types of Maps
• Political Maps
• Physical Maps
• Thematic Maps
• Topographic Maps
• Climate Maps
• Economic / Resource Maps
• Road Maps
Plan

• The plan is a two-dimensional drawing of a location, area, structure, or building that

includes numerous specific information.
• It provides extensive information in the symbolic form regarding tiny regions.
Different Types of Plans
• Site Plan
• Floor Plan
• Structural Plan
• Terrace Plan
• Cross-section.
• Elevation
• Landscape plan
Difference between Map and Plan
Map Plan
1 A map is a visual drawing of a whole The plan is a two-dimensional drawing of a
region or some of a locality that’s often location, area, structure, or building that
shown on a flat surface. includes numerous specific information.

2 On some map, (topographic A plan generally only shows horizontal

specifically) Vertical direction is also direction on it.
shown along with the horizontal and
directions.

3 Normal scale used in the map is 1cm = Normal scale used in the plan is 1cm =
100m or more than 100m. 10m or less than 10m
4 A map is generally drawn for a large Plan are generally drawn for a small area.
area.
SCALE
• A scale is the ratio of the distance marked on the plan to the
corresponding distance on the ground.
• A good draughtsman can plot a length to accuracy within 0.25 mm.
Types of Scales
• large,
• medium and
• small.
SCALE • Large scale : 1 cm = 10 m or less than 10 m.
• Medium scale : 1 cm = 10 m to 100 m.
• Small scale : 1 cm = 100 m or more than 100 m.
Representative Fraction
• A representative fraction (RF) is the ratio of distance on the
map to distance on the ground.
• Representative fractions are expressed in the form of 1
followed by a : (colon) and then a number, where the one is
the numerator in the fraction, the colon represents the division
operation, and the other number is the denominator.
• Thus, a scale of 1:24,000 can be expressed mathematically as
1/24,000.
Primary divisions of survey
1. Plane Surveying
2. Geodetic Surveying.
Plane surveying

• Plane surveying is a type of surveying in which the mean surface of the

earth is considered as a plane, and the spheroidal shape is neglected.
• All triangles formed by survey lines are considered plane triangles.
• The level line is considered as straight and all plumb lines are considered
parallel.
Geodetic surveying

• Geodetic surveying is that type of surveying in which the shape

of the earth is taken into account.
• All lines lying in the surface are curved lines and the triangles
are spherical triangles. It, therefore, involves spherical
trigonometry.
• All geodetic surveys include work of larger magnitude and high
degree of precision.
Classification of surveying
A. Classification based upon the nature of the field survey

1. Land Surveying
• Topographical Surveys:
This consists of horizontal and vertical location of certain points by linear and angular
measurements and is made to determine the natural features of a country such as rivers,
streams, lakes, woods, hills, etc., and such artificial features as roads, railways, canals,
towns and villages.
• Cadastral Surveys:
Cadastral surveys are made incident to the fixing of property lines, the calculation of
land area, or the transfer of land property from one owner to another. They are also
made to fix the boundaries of municipalities and of State and Federal jurisdictions.
Classification of surveying
A. Classification based upon the nature of the field survey

2. Marine or Hydrographic Survey.

Marine or hydrographic survey deals with bodies of water for purpose of navigation, water
supply, harbour works or for the determination of mean sea level. The work consists of
measurement of the discharge of streams, making a topographic survey of shores and
banks, taking and locating soundings to determine the depth of water and observing the
fluctuations of the ocean tide.

3. Astronomical Survey.
The astronomical survey offers the surveyor a means of determining the absolute location
of any point or the absolute location and direction of any line on the surface of the earth.
This consists of observations of the heavenly bodies such as the sun or any fixed star.
Classification of surveying
B. Classification based on the object of survey
Engineering Survey.
• This is undertaken for the determination of quantities or to afford sufficient data for
the designing of engineering works such as roads and reservoirs, or those connected
with sewage disposal or water supply.
Military Survey.
• This is used for determining points of strategic importance.
Mine Survey.
• This is used for the exploring mineral wealth.
Geological Survey.
• This is used for determining different strata in the earth’s crust.
Archaeological Survey.
• This is used for unearthing relics of antiquity.
Classification of surveying

(C) Classification based on instruments used

1. Chain survey
2. Theodolite survey
3. Traverse survey
4. Triangulation survey
5. Tacheometric survey
6. Plane table survey
7. Photogrammetric survey and
8. Aerial survey.
Chain survey:
• This is the simplest type of surveying in which only linear measurement are made with a chain
or a tape.
• Angular measurements are not taken.
Compass survey
• In the compass survey, the angles are measured with the help of a
magnetic compass.
Chain and compass survey:
• In this survey linear measurements are made with a chain or a
tape and angular measurement with a compass.
Plane table survey:
• It is a graphical method of surveying in which field works and
plotting both are done simultaneously.
Theodolite survey:
• In this survey, the horizontal angles are measured with a
theodolite more precisely then compass and the linear
measurement are made with a chain or a tape.
Tacheometry survey:
• A special type of theodolite known as a tacheometer is used to
determine horizontal and vertical distances indirectly.
Levelling Survey:
• This type of survey is used to determine the vertical distances and
relative heights of points with the help of an instrument known as level.
Levelling Survey:
Photogrammetric survey:
• Photogrammetry is the science of talking measurements with the help of
photographs taken by aerial camera from the air craft.
LEVELLING
LEVELING
• The art of determining relative altitude of points on the surface of the
earth or beneath the surface of the earth, is called levelling.

• This branch of surveying deals with measurements in vertical planes.

• This method is widely used for the execution of engineering projects,

such as railways, highways, canals, dams, water supply, and sanitary
works.
Objectives of Levelling in Surveying

1. To determine the elevation of

the given points with respect to
the given/assumed reference
line or datum.

2. To establish the points at a

provided elevation or at various
elevations with respect to a
given or assumed datum.
Applications of Levelling in Surveying
1. Levelling is necessary for the estimation and planning of various
civil engineering works such as roads, bridges, canals etc. It is also
necessary for the route or alignment survey of roads, bridges etc.
2. It is used to calculate the quantities of cut and fill as well as for
balancing the earthworks.
3. Levelling is an important aspect of the pipeline survey as it is used
to ensure a suitable slope of the land that will allow a smooth flow
of the liquid inside the pipe.
4. It is also vital for the preparation of contour maps.
5. It is necessary for the preparation of topographic maps.
Equipments used in levelling
1. Levels:
• Dumpy level, Auto
Levels, Thedolite, total
station
2. Levelling Staff

AUTO LEVEL

DUMPY LEVEL
Equipments used in levelling

TOTAL STATION
THDOLITE
Technical terms used in levelling
• Vertical Line
• It is the line which is indicated by plumb at required station. So, this is also called as
plumb line. It’s just decided based on the consideration of earth’s gravity. Vertical line
connects the station point to the center of the earth. A plumb is released from the
instrument height with the help of thread and instrument is set up at that point as its
center.
• Level surface (e.g. the geoid)
• Level surface is the continuous surface parallel to the mean spheroid of the earth.
The line representing the level surface is termed as level line. The level line makes
right angles to the vertical line or plumb line at any point. It means the any point on
level line is equidistance from the center of earth. Even though it is a curved surface,
it is considered as plane surface for smaller area works.
– A water surface with no motion
– Gravity gradient is the normal to the level surface
– The Instrument’s Bubble is in the normal
• Horizontal surface
– Horizontal line is the line of sight of instrument which is tangential to the level
Technical terms used in levelling
• Datum
Datum line is the reference line with respect to which the levels of other station points are fixed.
• Mean Sea Level
Mean sea level is established by taking the average height of tides in the sea over a very long period
(generally 19years). Mean sea level or MSL is used as datum level for all important surveys of that zone.
• Reduced Level
Reduced level is the vertical difference between the level point and datum line or the mean sea level.
• Benchmark
Benchmark is the point laid above or below the datum line with a known elevation.
Bench mark is considered as check for the other level points. There are different types of bench marks
are available in the surveying as follows:
• Great Trigonometrical Survey benchmarks
• Permanent benchmarks
• Temporary benchmarks
• Arbitrary benchmarks
Technical terms used in levelling
• Great Trigonometrical Survey Benchmarks
Great trigonometrical bench mark or shortly GTS benchmarks are very accurate, and they
are established by conducting high precise surveys. GTS benchmarks are decided by
taking mean sea level as datum. These are generally established by higher survey
authorities of particular country in all points of the country.
• Permanent Benchmarks
Permanent benchmarks are established with reference to GTS benchmarks. They are
established by local state government agencies or railways at railway stations, public
buildings, at bridges etc. Permanent benchmarks are useful for future references also.
• Temporary Benchmarks
Temporary benchmarks are created by the surveyors in the field to mark the point in the
field up to which the survey is completed. Then, it is easier to continue the survey from
that point after large gap or on the next day of work. The temporary bench mark point
should be decided in a way that the object or point should be permanently fixed in that
position.
• Arbitrary Benchmarks
In small survey works or engineering projects it is important to know the difference in
elevation of two points.
Definitions

Back sight (BS): The first reading from a new instrument stand point (i.e. take the height to
the instrument)
Fore sight (FS): The last reading from the current instrument station (i.e. give the height to a
benchmark)
Intermediate sight (IS)
Any sighting that is not a back sight or fore sight
Basic Rules for Leveling
• Always start and finish a leveling run on a Benchmark (BM or TGBM) and close the
loops
• Keep fore sight and back sight distances as equal as possible
• Keep lines of sight short (normally < 50m)
• Never read below 0.5m on a staff (refraction)
• Use stable, well defined change points
• Beware of shadowing effects and crossing waters
Observation, Field Notes, and Computation
Temporary Adjustment of Levelling
The temporary adjustment of the level consists of the following series of steps:
1. Setting up the level:
• The first step in the temporary adjustment of the level is set up of the level.
• The setting up basically includes the fixing of the instrument on the stand and levelling the
auto level approximately.
2. Levelling up:
• Then, accurate levelling is done with the help of the foot screws with reference to the plate
levels of the instrument.
• Levelling is done so as to ensure that the vertical axis is truly vertical and the horizontal line of
sight is truly horizontal.
3. Removal of Parallax:
• Parallax is defined as the condition in which the image formed by the objective lens does not
lie on the plane of the crosshairs.
• It can be eliminated by focusing the eyepiece of the instrument until the distinct vision of the
crosshairs is not obtained.
Booking and Reducing Levels
HIGHT OF INSTRUMENT METHOD

• It is the method which deals with the obtaining of RL of the line of

collimation by adding BS reading of a known RL point. Thus, RL of the
line of collimation is called the Height of Instrument.
• height of collimation (H of C) = reduced level(R.L.) + backsight (B.S.)
• reduced level (R.L.) = height of collimation (H of C) – foresight (F.S.)
• reduced level (R.L.) = height of collimation (H of C) – intermediate sight
(I.S.)
HIGHT OF INSTRUMENT METHOD
Station BS IS FS HI RL REMARKS
A 1.205
B 1.865
C 1.555 0.56
D 0.880 1.450
E 1.445
F 2.15
HIGHT OF INSTRUMENT METHOD
Station BS IS FS HI RL REMARKS
A 1.205 101.205 100 BM
B 1.865 99.34
C 1.555 0.56 102.2 100.645 CP
D 0.880 1.450 101.63 100.75 CP
E 1.445 100.185
F 2.15 99.48
HIGHT OF INSTRUMENT METHOD
RISE AND FALL METHOD
• It is the method which gives the difference of elevation between
consecutive points by comparing each point after the first that
immediately preceding it.
• Rise and fall are indicated by the difference in staff reading.
• After that RL is found by adding the rise to or subtracting the fall
from the reduced level of the preceding point.

fall (F) = foresight (F.S.) – backsight (B.S.)

fall (F) = intermediate sight (I.S.) – backsight (B.S.)

rise (R) = backsight (B.S.) – foresight (F.S.)

reduced level (R.L.) = precede reduced level + rise (R)

RISE AND FALL METHOD
RISE AND FALL METHOD

Station BS IS FS RISE FALL RL Remarks

A 1.205 100
B 1.865
C 1.555 0.56
D 0.880 1.450
E 1.445
F 2.15
RISE AND FALL METHOD
Station BS IS FS RISE FALL RL Remarks
A 1.205 100
0.66
B 1.865 99.34

C 1.555 0.56 1.305 100.645

D 0.880 1.450 0.105 100.750
E 1.445 0.565 100.185
F 2.15 0.705 99.48
Difference between rise and fall method and height
of instrument
Types of Levelling in Surveying

Direct Levelling
• Simple leveling
• Differential leveling
• Fly leveling
• Profile leveling
• Precise leveling
• Reciprocal leveling
Finding the difference in elevation between two points both of
which are visible from a single position of the level is called as simple
levelling.
Differential leveling
 Differential leveling is performed when the distance between two
points is more. In this process, number of inter stations are located
and instrument is shifted to each station and observed the elevation
of inter station points.
 Finally difference between original two points is determined.
Differential leveling
Fly leveling
Fly leveling is conducted when the benchmark is very far from the work
station.
In such case, a temporary bench mark is located at the work station
which is located based on the original benchmark. Even it is not highly
precise it is used for determining approximate level.
Profile leveling
• Profile leveling is generally adopted to find elevation of points along a line
such as for road, rails or rivers etc.
• In this case, readings of intermediate stations are taken and reduced
level of each station is found. From this, cross section of the alignment is
drawn.
Profile leveling
Profile leveling
Precise leveling

• Precise leveling is similar to differential leveling but in this case higher precise is
wanted.
• To achieve high precise, serious observation procedure is performed. The accuracy of 1
mm per 1 km is achieved.
Reciprocal leveling
• Reciprocal levelling helps in compensating for the error due to curvature and refraction
and also the line of collimation errors in surveying. It is one of the best methods to
eliminate curvature and refraction errors.
Reciprocal leveling
• Reciprocal levelling helps in compensating for the error due to curvature and refraction
and also the line of collimation errors in surveying. It is one of the best methods to
eliminate curvature and refraction errors.

h= [(a1 – b1) + (a2 – b2)] / 2

ADVANCED METHODS OF
SURVEYING
ADVANCED METHODS OF SURVEYING

Following are the modern surveying instruments which are used

for surveying:
 Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) Instruments
 Total Station
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
 Automatic Level
Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) Instruments
There are three methods of measuring distance between two
points:
 DDM or Direct distance measurement - by chaining or taping.
 ODM or Optical distance measurement - This measurement is
conducted by tacheometry, horizontal subtense method or
telemetric method. These are carried out with the help of
optical wedge attachments.
 EDM or Electromagnetic distance measurement - Electronic
distance measuring instrument is a surveying instrument for
measuring distance electronically between two points through
electromagnetic waves. Electronic distance measurement
Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) Instruments
 Direct measurement of distances and their directions can be
obtained by using electronic instruments that rely on
propagation, reflection and reception of either light waves or
radio waves.
 They may be broadly classified into three types: a. Infrared
wave instruments b. Light wave instruments c. Microwave
instruments
Total Station
Total Station is a lightweight, compact and fully integrated
electronic instrument combining the capability of an EDM and
an angular measuring instrument such as theodolite.
Total Station can perform the following functions:
 Distance measurement
 Angular measurement
 Data processing
 Digital display of point details
 Storing data is an electronic field book
Total Station
Total Station
Global Positioning System (GPS)

 Global Positioning System (GPS) is developed by U.S.

Defense department and is called Navigational System
with Time and Ranging Global Positioning System
(NAVSTAR GPS) or simply GPS.

 For this purpose U.S. Air Force has stationed 24 satellites

at an altitude of 20200 km above the earth’s surface.

 The satellites have been positioned in such a way, at least

four satellites will be visible from any point on earth.
Global Positioning System (GPS)
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based
navigation and surveying system for determination of
precise position and time, using radio signals from the
satellites, in realtime or in post-processing mode.
This is where one receiver remains in one position over a
known point – the Base Station – and another receiver
moves between positions – the Rover Station.
The position of the Rover can be computed and stored
within a few seconds, using a radio link to provide a
coordinate correction. This method gives similar accuracy to
baseline measurements within 10km of the base station.
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Station BS IS FS
BM 0.995
A 1.255
B 0.985
C 0.900 1.005
D 1.110 1.250
E 1.350