Surveying

Group 1 Reporting and Presentation

August 31, 2021
01 Introduction
All surveying operations have the same basic characteristics that
describe a portion of the earth’s surface or of establishing the position
or boundaries of some object upon it.

02 Linear Measurement
Linear measurement is the measurement of the distance between the

Lesson
two-point or object, or it can also be defined as the gap between the
leftmost end to the rightmost end.

CONTENTS 03 Chain Surveying

The branch of surveying in which only linear measurements are
made in the field. It derives its name from the fact that the principle
equipment commonly used is the chain.
Introduction
Planning and design are based on the results of surveys;
construction is controlled by surveying.

Professionals in different fields of engineering is also

concerned with surveying as means of planning and
executing their respective projects.
Introduction

Surveying....
is the art of determining the relative positions of

different objects on the surface and

below the surface of the earth by measuring the

horizontal and vertical distances between them

and by preparing a map to any suitable scale. Thus

in discipline, the measurements are taken in

the horizontal plane alone.

Objective
The aim of surveying is to prepare a plan or map to show the relative positions of the objects on
the surface of the earth. The map is drawn to some suitable scale .It shows the natural features of
a country such as towns, villages, roads, railways, rivers, etc. Maps may also include details of
different engineering works, such as roads, railways, irrigation, canals, etc.
Uses of Surveying
Surveying may be used for the following various applications.

q To prepare a topographical map which shows the hills, valleys, rivers, villages, towns,
forests ,etc. of a country.
q To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of fields, houses, and other
properties.
q To prepare an engineering map showing details of engineering works such as roads,
railways, reservoirs, irrigation canals, etc.
q To prepare a military map showing the road and railway communications with different
parts of a country. Such a map also shows the different strategic points important for the
defence of a country.
q To prepare a contour map to determine the capacity of reservoir and to find the best
possible route for roads, railways, etc.
q To prepare a geological map showing areas including underground resources exist.
q To prepare an archeological map including places where ancient relics exist.
Measurement
Linear surveying involves measurement of distances between
points on the surface of the earth. There are various methods of
linear surveying and their relative merit depends upon the
degree of precision (accuracy) required.
GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF
SURVEYING

Surveying 1. To work from the whole to the part, and

The practice of measuring angles and

distances on the ground so that they can be 2. To locate a new station by at least two

accurately plotted on a map measurements (linear or angular) from fixed

reference
points.
The process of measuring involved several concepts and skills.
Attributes that are measured by linear measurement are length, height,
width, and distance. The distance “around” (perimeter, circumference) a
shape or object is also a type of linear measurement. There is a strong
connection between number and measurement.
According to the first principle, the whole area is first enclosed by main stations and
main survey lines. The area is then divided into a number of parts by forming well
conditioned triangles. A nearly equilateral triangle is considered to be the best well-
conditioned triangle. The main survey lines are measured very accurately with a
standard chain. Then the sides of the triangles are measured. The purpose of this
process of working is to prevent accumulation of error. During this procedure, if there is
any error in the measurement of any side of a triangle, then it will not affect the whole
work. The error can always be detected and eliminated.
But, if the reverse process (i.e. from the part to the whole) is followed, then the minor
errors in measurement will be magnified in the process of expansion and stage will
comewhen these errors will become absolutely uncontrollable.

According to the second principle, the new stations should always be fixed by at least
twomeasurements (linear or angular) from fixed reference points. Linear measurements
refer tohorizontal distances measured by chain or tape. Angular measurements refer to
the magneticbearing or horizontal angle taken by a prismatic compass or theodolite.
Classification of Surveying
Generally, surveying is divided into two major categories:
plane and geodetic surveying.

PLANE SURVEYING GEODETIC SURVEYING

is a process of surveying in which the portion of is a process of surveying in which the

the earth being surveyed is considered a plane. shape and size of the earth are considered
Plane Surveying

The term is used to designate survey work in which the

distances or areas involved are small enough that the curvature

of the earth can be disregarded without significant error.

In general, the term of limited extent. For small areas, precise

results may be obtained with plane surveying methods, but the

accuracy and precision of such results will decrease as the area

surveyed increases in size.

Plane Surveying
To make computations in plane surveying, you will use formulas of plane

trigonometry, algebra, and analytical geometry.

When it is realized that an arc of 10 mi is only 0.04 greater that its subtended chord;

that a plane surface tangent to the spherical arc has departed only about 8 in. at

1 mi from the point of tangency; and that the sum of the angles of a spherical

triangle is only 1 sec greater than the sum of the angles of a plane triangle for a

triangle having an area of approximately 75 sq mi on the earth’s surface, it is just

reasonable that the errors caused by the earth’s curvature be considered only in

precise surveys of large areas.

Geodetic Surveying

This type of survey is suited for large areas and

long lines and is used to find the precise location of

basic points needed for establishing control for other

surveys. In geodetic surveys, the stations are normally

long distances apart, and more precise instruments

and surveying methods are required for this type of

surveying than for plane surveying.

Classification of Surveying
Based on the purpose
(for which surveying is being conducted)

Control Surveying Land Surveying

To establish horizontal and vertical To determine the boundaries and areas of

positions of control points. parcels of land, also known as property survey,

boundary survey or cadastral survey.

Topographic Survey Engineering Survey

To prepare a plan/ map of a region which To collect requisite data for planning, design
includes natural as well as and man-made and execution of engineering projects.

features including elevation..

Engineering Survey
Three broad steps are:

1) Reconnaissance survey

To explore site conditions and availability of infrastructures.

2) Preliminary survey

To collect adequate data to prepare plan/map of area to be used for

planning and design.

3) Location survey

To set out work on the ground for actual construction/execution of the project.
Classification of Surveying
Based on the purpose
(for which surveying is being conducted)

Route Survey Construction Surveys

To plan, design, and laying out of route such Surveys which are required for establishment
as highways, railways, canals,pipelines, and of points, lines,grades, and for staking out
other linear projects. engineering works

Astronomic Surveys Mine Surveys

To determine the latitude, longitude (of the To carry out surveying specific for opencast
observation station) and azimuth (of a line and underground mining purposes.
through observation station) from astronomical
observation.
LAND SURVEYS
(sometimes called cadastral or property surveys)

are conducted to establish the exact location, boundaries, or subdivision of a

tract of land in any specified area. This type of survey requires professional

registration in all states.

Presently, land surveys generally consist of the following chores:

1. Establishing markers or monuments to define and thereby preserve the boundaries

of land belonging to a private concern, a corporation, or the government.

2. Relocating markers or monuments legally established by original surveys. This

requires examining previous survey records and retracing what was done.
LAND SURVEYS
(sometimes called cadastral or property surveys)

3. Rerunning old land survey lines to determine their lengths and directions. As

a result of the high cost of land, old lines are re-measured to get more

precise measurements.

4. Subdividing landed estates into parcels of predetermined sizes and shapes.

5. Calculating areas, distances, and directions and preparing the land map to

portray the survey data so that it can be used as a permanent record.

6. Writing a technical description for deeds.

SPECIAL SURVEYS

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, SPECIAL SURVEYS are conducted for a

specific purpose and with a special type of surveying equipment and methods. A

brief discussion of some of the special surveys familiar to you follows.

CONTROL SURVEYS

provide "basic control" or horizontal and vertical positions of points to

which supplementary surveys are adjusted. These types of surveys (sometimes

termed and traverse stations and the elevations of bench marks. These control

points are further used as References for hydrographic surveys of the coastal

waters; for topographic control; and for the control of many state, city, and private

surveys.
Surveying
The principle of chain surveying is to divide the area to be
surveyed into a network of connected triangles as a triangle is
the only simple figure that can be plotted from the lengths of
its sides measured in the field.
Principle of Chain Surveying
The principle of chain surveying is triangulation. This means that the area to be surveyed is
divided into a number of small triangles which should be well conditioned. In chain surveying the sides of the triangles which
should be well conditioned. In chain surveying the sides of the
triangles are measured directly on the field by chain or tape, and no angular measurements are taken. Here, the tie lines and
check lines control the accuracy of work.
Chain Surveying
It should be noted that plotting triangles requires no angular measurements to be
made, if the three sides are known.

Recommended when: Usuitable when:

1. The area is crowded with many details
1. The ground surface is more or less level
2. The area consists of too many undulations
2. A small area is to be surveyed
3. The area is very large and
3. A small-scale map is to be prepared and
4. The formation of well-conditioned triangles
4. The formation of well-conditioned triangles is easy
becomes difficult due to obstacles
Definitions and Illustrations
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit.
Aenean commodo ligula eget dolor. Aenean massa.

Main Stations
Stations taken along the boundary of an area as
controlling points are known as ‘main survey

A. Survey Stations lines’. The main survey lines should cover the
whole area to be surveyed.

Survey stations are the points at the beginning Subsidiary stations

and the end of a chain line. They may also Stations which are on the main survey lines or any
othersurvey lines are known as “Subsidiary stations”.
occurat any convenient points on the chain
These stations are taken to run subsidiary lines for
line. Such stations may be: dividing the area into triangles, for checking the
accuracy of triangles and for locating interior details

Tie Stations
These are also subsidiary stations taken on the main
survey lines. Lines joining the tie stations are known as
tie lines. Tie lines are mainly taken to fix the directions
of adjacent sides of the chain survey map.
B. Base Line
The line on which the framework of the survey is built
is known as the ‘base line’. It is the most important
line of the survey. Generally, the longest of the main
survey lines is considered the base line. This line
should be taken through fairly level ground, and
C. Check Line
should be measured very carefully and accurately.
The magnetic bearings of the base line are taken to The line joining the apex point of a triangle to
fix the north line of the map. some fixed point on its base is known as the
‘check line’. It is taken to check the accuracy of
the triangle. Sometimes this line helps to locate
interior details.
D. Offset
The lateral measurement taken from an object to the chain line is known as ‘offset’.
Offsets are taken to locate objects with reference to the chain line. They may be of
two kinds - perpendicular and oblique.

Perpendicular offsets Number of offsets

The offsets should be taken according to the nature of
When the lateral measurements are taken
the object. So, there is no hard and fast rule regarding
perpendicular to the chain line, they are the number of offsets. It should be remembered that the
known as perpendicular offsets objects are to be correctly represented and hence the
number of offsets should be decided on the field.

Oblique offsets Limiting length of offsets

Any offset not perpendicular to the chain line
The maximum length of the offset should not
is said to be oblique. Oblique offsets are taken
be more than the length of the tape used in
when the objects are at a long distance from
the survey. Generally, the maximum length
the chain line or when it is not possible to set
of offset is limited to 15m
up a right angle due to some difficulties. S.
E. Degree of Accuracy

Degree of accuracy is determined before the starting

of any survey work. It is worked out according the
following factors: During reconnaissance survey, the length of the main
survey lines are approximately determined
(a) Scale of plotting by the pacing method. One pace or walking step of a
man is considered to equal 80 cm. When
(b) Permissible error in plotting the length of the survey lines or the extent of area to
be surveyed is approximately known, the
scale of the map may be assumed. Again, the
permissible error in plotting may be obtained from
the concerned department. Then the degree of
accuracy in measurement is ascertained.
S E L E C T I O N O F S U R V E Y S TAT I O N S

The following points should be remembered during the selection of survey stations:

1. The stations should be so selected that the general principle of surveying may be strictly followed.
2. The stations should be intervisible.
3. The stations should be selected in such a way that well-conditioned triangles may be formed.
4. The base line should be the longest of the main survey lines.
5. The survey lines should be taken through fairly level ground, as far as practicable.
6. The main survey lines should pass close to the boundary line of the area to be surveyed.
7. The survey lines should be taken close to the objects so that they can be located by short offsets.
8. The tie stations should be suitably selected to fix the directions of adjacent sides.
9. The subsidiary stations should be suitably selected for taking check lines.
10. Stations should be so selected that obstacles to chaining are avoided as far as possible.
11. The survey lines should not be very close to main roads, as survey work may then be interrupted
by traffic.
Equipments for Chain Survey

The following equipments are required for conducting chain survey:

1. Metric chain (20 m) = 1 no. 2. Arrows = 10 nos.

3. Metallic tape (15 m) = 1 no. 4. Ranging rods = 3 nos.

5. Offset rod = 1 no 6. Clinometer = 1 no

7. Plumb bob with thread = 1 no 8. Cross staff or optical square = 1 no

9. Prismatic compass with stand = 1 no. 10. Wooden pegs = 10 nos.

11. Mallet = 1 no 12. Field book = 10 nos.

13. Good pencil = 1 no 14. Pen knife = 1 no.

15. Eraser (rubber) = 1 no

The Field Book
The notebook in which field measurements are noted is known as the
‘field book’. The size of the field book is 20 cm x 12 cm and it opens
lengthwise.

Single-line field book Double-line field book

In this type of field book, a single red line is drawn through In this type of field book, two red lines, 1.5 cm apart, are drawn
the middle of each page. This line represents the chain line, through the middle of each page. This column represents the chain
and the chainages are written on it. The offsets are line, and the chainages are written in it. The offsets are recorded,
recorded, with sketches, to the left or right of the chain line. with sketches, to the left or right of this column.
B. Precautions to be Taken While Entering the Field book

1. All measurements should be noted as soon as they are taken.

2. Each chain line should be recorded on a separate page. Normally it should start from the bottom of
one page and end on the top of another. No line should be started from any intermediate position.
3. Over –writing should be avoided.
4. Figures and hand-writing should be neat and legible.
5. Index-sketch, object-sketch and notes should be clear.
6. Reference sketches should be given in the field book, so that the station can be located when
required.
7. The field book should be entered in pencil and not in ink.
8. If an entry is incorrect or a page damaged, cancel the page and start the entry from a new one.
9. Erasing a sketch, measurement or note should be avoided.
10. The surveyor should face the direction of chaining so that the left-hand and right-hand
objects can be recorded without any confusion.
11. The field-book should be carefully preserved.
12. The field-book should contain the following:
(i) name, (ii) location, and (iii) date, of survey, (iv) name of party members, and (v) page index or
chain line.
PROCEDURE OF FIELD WORK
Field work of chain survey should be carried out
according to the following steps:

q Reconnaissance q Marking the stations on the ground

q Index Sketch q Taking measurements of survey lines

and noting them in the field book
q Reference sketches
1.Reconnaissance
Before starting survey work, the surveyor should walk over the whole area to be surveyed in
order to examine the ground and determine the possible arrangement of framework of survey.
During this investigation, he should examine the intervisibility of the main survey stations. He
should ensure that the whole area is enclosed by main survey lines, and also that it is possible to
form well-conditioned triangles. He should observe various objects and boundary lines carefully
and select the survey lines in such a manner that the objects can be located by short offsets.
The base line should preferably be taken through the centre of the area and on fairly
level ground.

2.Index sketch
After preliminary inspection of the area, the surveyor should prepare a neat hand sketch showing
the arrangement of the framework and approximate position of the objects. He should note the
names of the stations on the sketch maintaining some order (clockwise or anticlockwise). The
field work should be executed according to this index sketch. The names and sequence of chain
lines should be followed as directed in the index sketch. The ‘base line’ should be clearly
indicated in the index sketch.
3. Marking the stations on the ground
After reconnaissance, the stations are marked on the ground by wooden pegs.
These pegs are generally 2.5 cm square and 15 cm long, and have pointed ends.
They are driven into the ground firmly, and there should be a height of 2.5 cm above
the ground. The station point is marked with a cross so that it can be traced if the
wooden peg is removed by somebody

4. Reference sketches
To take precautions against station pegs being removed or missed, a reference sketch should
be made for all main stations. It is nothing but a hand sketch of the station showing at least two
measurements from some permanent objects. A third measurement may also be taken

5.Taking measurements of survey lines and noting them

in the field book
Ranging and chaining is started from the base line, which should be measured carefully. The
magnetic bearings of the base line are measured by prismatic compass. These measurements are
noted in the field book showing the offsets to the left or right according to their position. Then
the other survey lines are ranged and chained maintaining the sequence of the traverse. The
offsets and other field records are noted simultaneously. The check lines and tie lines are also
measured and noted at the proper place. The station marks are preserved carefully until field
work is completed.
CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS
In a map the objects are shown by symbols and not by names. So the surveyor should know
the following standard conventional symbols for some common objects.
Equipments for Plotting

1. Drawing board (normal size – 1000 mm x 700 mm)

2. Tee-square 3. Set-square (450 and 600)

4. Protractor 5. Cardboard scale – set of eight

6. Instrument box 7. French curve

8. Offset scale

9. Drawing paper of good quality (normal size – 880 mm x 625 mm)

10. Pencils of good quality – 2 H, 3 H or 4 H

11. Eraser (rubber) of good quality 12. Board clips or pins

13. Ink (Chinese ink or Indian ink) of required shade

14. Colour of required shade 15. Inking pen (or Hi-tech pen) and brushes

16. Handkerchief, knife , paperweight 17. Mini drafter

3.10 PROCEDURE OF PLOTTING

1. A suitable scale is chosen so that the area can be accommodated in the

space available on the map.
2. A margin of about 2 cm from the edge of the sheet is drawn around the
sheet.
3. The title block is prepared on the right hand bottom corner.
4. The north line is marked on the right-hand top corner, and should
preferably be vertical. When it is not convenient to have a vertical north line,
it may be inclined to accommodate the whole area within the map.
5. A suitable position for the base line is selected on the sheet so that the
whole area along with all the objects it contains can be drawn within the
space available in the map.
3.10 PROCEDURE OF PLOTTING

6. The framework is completed with all survey lines, check lines and tie lines. If there is some
plotting error which exceeds the permissible limit, the incorrect lines should be resurveyed.
7. Until the framework is completed in proper form, the offsets should not be plotted.
8. The plotting of offsets should be continued according to the sequence maintained in the
field book.
9. The main stations, substations, chain line, objects, etc. should be shown as per standard
symbols
10. The conventional symbols used in the map should be shown on the right-hand side.
11. The scale of the map is drawn below the heading or in some suitable space. The heading
should be written on the top of the map.
12. Unnecessary lines, objects etc. should be erased.
13. The map should not contain any dimensions
CROSS-STAFF AND OPTICAL SQUARE

Cross-staff Optical Square

The cross-staff is a simple instrument for setting out right An optical square is also used for setting out right angles. It consist
angles. There are three types of crossstaves, Open, French, of a small circular metal box of diameter 5 cm and depth 1.25 cm. It
and Adjustable. The open cross-staff is commonly used. has a metal cover which slides round the box to cover the
The open cross-staff consists of four metal arms with slits.
vertical slits. The two pairs of arms (AB and BC) are at right
angles to each other. The vertical slits are meant for
sighting the object and the ranging rods.
Principle

According to the principle of reflecting surfaces, the angle between the first
incident ray and the last reflected ray is twice the angle between the mirrors. In
this case, the angle between the mirrors is fixed at 450
. So, the angle between the horizon sight and index sight will be 900
.
Setting up the perpendicular by optical square

1. The observer should stand on the chain line and approximately at the position
where the perpendicular is to be set up.
2. The optical square is held by the arm at the eye level. The ranging rod at the
forward station B is observed through the unsilvered portion on the lower part
of the horizon glass.
3. Then the observer looks through the upper silvered portion of the horizon glass
to see the image of the object P.
4. Suppose the observer finds that the ranging rod B and the image of object P do
not coincide. The he should move forward or backward along the chain line
until the ranging rod B and the image of P exactly coincide
5. At this position the observer marks a point on the ground to locate the foot of
the perpendicular.
Thank you!
Duriman, Fernandez, Gubac, Lachica, Pajes, Prajes, Suganob
August 31, 2021