Unit-II: Transmission Lines and Waveguides

Contents: 6 hrs
• Introduction to Microwave, Short history of microwave engineering
• Frequency band definitions, advantages, and applications of microwave
(overall applications)
•Introduction to wave guides, Advantages of waveguides, Comparison of
waveguides and co-axial cables
•Rectangular waveguide, modes of propagation in waveguide, Cut off frequency
•Dominant mode, Waveguide characteristics and parameters
•Excitation in waveguides, Coupling methods (probe, slot, loop)
•Application of re-entrant cavity, Coupling of cavities
•Striplines: Structural details, types and applications.

Text Book:
► 1.Samuel Liao, “Microwave Devices and Circuits”, Third Edition, Person
Reference Books:
► 1. M.Kulkarni, “Microwave And RADAR Engineering”, Fifth Edition, Umesh Publication.

1
Radiation and Microwave Theory CO-PO Mapping
Mapping
Course On completion of the course, learner will with
PO MAPPING
Outcome be able to - Syllabus
Unit
Apply the fundamentals of electromagnetic to derive 1 P01, P02,P03,P04,
free space propagation equation and distinguish P05,P06,
CO1 various performance parameters of antenna.

Identify various modes in the waveguide. Compare: 2 P01, P02,P03,P04,

coaxial line, rectangular waveguides & striplines and P05
CO2 identify applications of the same.

Explore construction and working of principles 3 P01, P02,P03,P04,

CO3 passive microwave devices/components. P05

Explore construction and working of principles 4 P01, P02,P03,P04,

CO4 active microwave devices/components. P05

Analyze the structure, characteristics, operation, 5 P01, P02,P03,P04,

equivalent circuits and applications of various P05,PO6
CO5 microwave solid state active devices

CO6 Know the various microwave systems, devise set ups 6 P01, P02,P03,P04,
of microwave measurement devices and Identify the P05,PO8
effect of radiations on environmental sustainability. 2
Course Objectives and Course Outcome of
Unit-II
Objectives:
► To understand advantages and applications of microwaves

► To differentiate between waveguide and transmission lines

► To understand Fundamental theory of rectangular waveguide

► To know about cavities and resonators

► Course Outcome:CO2

Identify various modes in the waveguide. Compare: coaxial line,

rectangular waveguides & striplines and identify applications of the
same.
Outline
► Advantages and applications of microwaves

► Fundamental theory of rectangular waveguide

► Difference between waveguide and coaxial cable

► Introduction to striplines
Radiation and Microwave Theory

► Unit I: Fundamental Theory of Radiation and Radiating Elements

► Unit II: Transmission Lines and Waveguides
► Unit III: Passive Microwave Components
► Unit IV: Active Microwave Components
► Unit V: Solid State Microwave Devices
► Unit VI: Microwave Systems and Microwave Measurement
Techniques
Unit-II
Transmission Lines and Waveguides
Introduction to microwaves
What are Microwaves?
•The prefix, "micro" is "microwaves" is not meant to suggest a
wavelength in micrometer range.
•It indicates that microwaves are "small" (in wavelength)
compared to waves used in typical radio broadcasting (MF,
HF).
Q. Define Microwave
Definition:
•Microwaves are electromagnetic signals in the frequency range
from 300 MHz (3 x 108 Hz) to 300 GHz (3 x 10¹¹ Hz).
•The wavelength for this range goes from 1 m to 1 mm.
•Sometimes microwave frequencies are referred to those from 1
GHz up to 106 GHz.
•Most applications of microwave technology make use of
frequencies in the range of 1 to 40 GHz.
• Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with
wavelengths ranging from about one meter to one
millimeter; with frequencies between 300 MHz (1 m) and
300 GHz (1 mm)

• Microwave is an electromagnetic radiation of short

wavelength

• Frequencies in the microwave range are often referred to

by their IEEE radar band designations: S, C, X, Ku , K,
or Ka band
History of microwaves
• James Maxwell (1831-1879) :unified all previous results in 4
equations and predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves
• Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857-1937): Experimentally confirmed
Maxwell’s predictions
• Guglielmo Marconi (1874 -1937): Transmitted information on
experimental basis at microwave frequencies
• George C. Southworth(1930): Marconi’s experiment carried
out at commercial basis.
• World war II (1945):Radar developed
• K.Kurz and Barkhausen(1920):Developed BKO oscillator
• (barkhausen Kurz oscillator)
• A. W. Hull(1921):Developed Magnetron device
• 1960:Telephone communication
• 1990:Satellite TV transmission, Microwave oven, Personal
communication system, cellphones, medicine, industry
Frequency spectrum
Frequency spectrum
Frequency spectrum
IEEE Microwave Bands Designation
Band Frequency Wavelength(cm)
(GHz)
L 1 to 2 30.0 to 15.0
S 2 to 4 15 to 7.5
C 4 to 8 7.5 to 3.8
X 8 to 12 3.8 to 2.5
Ku 12 to 18 2.5 to 1.7
K 18 to 27 1.7 to 1.1
Ka 27 to 40 1.1 to 0.75
Millimeter 40-300 0.75-0.1
The IEEE designations are presently used widely in practice and the
technical literature.
Advantages of Microwaves
• Increased Bandwidth Availability

• Reduced dimensions for Antenna & other components

• Improved Directive properties

• Less interference from other applications

• Less fading effect and more reliable

• Lower power requirement

• Transparency Property of Microwaves

Disdvantages of Microwaves
• Atmospheric losses are high.

• Components are expensive

• Higher component losses and less power output from

active devices.

• For high frequencies operation use of GaAs instead of

Si
Q. Discuss the characteristics of microwaves.
PROPERTIES OF MICROWAVES
•Microwaves have certain properties and characteristics that make
them different from the waves of adjacent bands.
• Because of these properties they are specifically suitable for certain
applications.
•These properties are:
1 Improved Directivity:
•Microwaves are used in applications like radar, and direction finding.
•These and many more applications require point to point
communication.
•This type of communication requires the microwave signal to be
highly directional i.e. it should have a fine beam of radiation.
•Production of such a beam requires the antenna dimensions to be
several wavelength large.
•At low frequency (λ is high) the size of the antenna will be very larger
and not practical.
•At microwaves the size is manageable.
2 High Channel Capacity
•The bandwidth required for different types of transmission are as
follows:
AM - 20KHz
FM - 200KHz
TV& 6MHz
•There are so many AM, FM and TV channels that total requires at least
1 GHz of bandwidth.
•IN microwave band (1 GHz to 1000 GHz) there are 1000 sections of 1
GHz each.
•Thus any of these can be used to transmit all the radio (AM and FM),
TV and other communication.
•Thus microwave band is said to have high information capacity.
5 Microwaves are Transparent
•The low frequency waves transmitted high up in the sky, when
travel into ionosphere (higher part of the atmosphere)
•The bending of the path makes these waves come back to earth.
This is due to reflection.
•But microwaves can propagate through ionized layer freely
without bending. Due to presence of such a transparent "window"
in a microwave band it is possible to have.
• (i) Duplex communication and exchanges of information
between ground stations and space vehicles.
•(ii) The radiation from sun and other stars can be studied.
6 Less Fading Effect:
• In fading effect the signal strength at the receiver changes due to
changes in transmission path.
•This effect is more at low frequencies.
• Due to "line of sight" propagation and high frequencies there is
less fading and thus microwave communication is more reliable.
Applications of Microwaves
Commercial Applications
• Microwave ovens
• Drying machines
•Rubber / Plastics / Chemical /Food process industry
•Biomedical Applications
Electronic Warfare and Counter Warfare
Telecommunication
•Space communication
•Telemetry communication for railway
Radars
Object identification
❖ APPLICATIONS OF MICROWAVES
Q. Discuss applications of microwaves in different fields
1. Telecommunication (wireless):
• Besides the traditional applications in communications, such
as radio and TV, microwave signals are being used in cordless
phones, cellular communication, mobiles, PCSS, LANS,
WAN, MAN terrestrial links, satellite link, direct to home
(DTH) service.
2. Radar:
•The term radar was originally short for radio detection and ranging.
•Radar is used for military as well as civilian purpose.
•Military applications include surveillance, navigation, electronics
warfare, guidance of weapons etc.
•Electronic warfare (EW) is the process of disrupting the electronics
performance of a enemy weapon like radar, communication system, or
weapon guidance.
3. Medical:
•In some cases microwaves can be used to treat health problems better
than drugs. Microwaves are primarily used in medical cases as an
alternative to surgery.
•It is also used microwave imaging, magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), patient monitoring in a hospital or nursing home etc.
4. Microwave heating:
•The hot air used in printing process to dry the ink adversely affects the
paper and shortens its life span. In microwave drying only the ink
portion is heated and the paper is barely affected by it.
•Microwave heating is used in industrial heating as well as
household cooking.
5 Scientific research:
•In this, microwaves monitor the environmental health of our planet as
well as learn more about the universe.
•Research scientists use microwaves in two ways: active and passive.
•In active systems, such as radars, scientists send out microwaves and
examine what comes back.
•In passive systems scientists simply look for naturally occurring
microwaves and use them for learning more about the objects that
emit the waves.
6. Industry:
Microwaves are used in industry for process control, drying, curing,
material processing etc.

7. Motor vehicle and highway applications:

• Most of the latest motor vehicles use systems using microwaves for
collision warning and avoidance, GPS, road to vehicle communication,
near obstacle detection, radar speed sensors, vehicle RF identification
etc.
•The highway applications of microwaves include automatic toll
collection, traffic control, highways traffic monitoring etc. List of
application of microwaves
Various application areas and list of applications are shown in fig.
Waveguides
• A hollow metallic tube of uniform cross section
for transmitting electromagnetic waves by
successive reflections from the inner walls of the
tube is called waveguide.
Waveguides
Waveguides
❖ Waveguides, like transmission lines, are structures used
to guide electromagnetic waves from point to point.
❖ However, the fundamental characteristics of waveguide
and transmission line waves (modes) are quite different.
❖ The differences in these modes result from the basic
differences in geometry for a transmission line and a
waveguide.
❖ Metal waveguides normally take the form of an enclosed
conducting metal pipe. The waves propagating inside
the metal waveguide may be characterized by reflections
from the conducting walls.
Transmission line and Wave guide -1
Transmission line Wave guide
Two or more conductors Metal waveguides are
separated by some typically one enclosed
insulating medium conductor filled with an
(two-wire, coaxial, micro insulating medium.
strip, etc.)

Normal operating mode is Operating modes are TE or

the TEM or quasi-TEM TM modes (cannot support
mode (can support TE and a TEM mode).
TM modes but these modes
are typically undesirable).
Transmission line and Wave guide -2
Transmission line Wave guide

No cutoff frequency for the Must operate the waveguide

TEM mode. Transmission at a frequency above the
lines can transmit signals respective TE or TM mode
from DC up to high cutoff frequency for that
frequency. mode to propagate.

Significant signal Lower signal attenuation at

attenuation at high high frequencies than
frequencies due to conductor transmission lines.
and dielectric losses.
Transmission line and Wave guide -3
Transmission line Wave guide

Small cross-section transmission Metal waveguides can

lines (like coaxial cables) can transmit high power levels.
only transmit low power levels The fields of the
due to the relatively high fieldspropagating wave are
concentrated at specific
spread more uniformly
locations within the device over a larger cross-sectional
area than the small
cross-section transmission
line.
Large cross-section transmission Large cross-section (low
lines can transmit high power frequency) waveguides are
levels. impractical due to large
size and high cost.
Rectangular Waveguide
1. Rectangular waveguides are
the most commonly used
waveguides
2. They consist of a hollow
metallic structure with a
rectangular cross-section
3. A rectangular waveguide is
usually constructed with a
length of a > b, where a is
breadth and b is width of
waveguide.
4. A common trend for the
dimension of a rectangular
waveguide is a=2b.
Propagation of TEM Waves:
We know for TEM wave, Ez=0 and Hz=0
Substituting these values in eqn 4.6.17 to 4.6.20 all the field components along
x and y directions Ex, Ey, Hx, Hy vanish and hence TEM wave cannot exist
inside a waveguide.
Types of modes in Waveguide
❖ Transverse Electric (TE) wave: Here only the
electric field is purely transverse to the direction
of propagation and the magnetic field is not
purely transverse.
(i.e.) Ez = 0, Hz ≠ 0.

❖ Transverse Magnetic (TM) wave: Here only

magnetic field is transverse to the direction of
propagation and the electric field is not purely
transverse.
(i.e.) Ez ≠ 0, Hz = 0.
Phase Velocity:
Is the rate at which the wave changes its phase in order to undergo
a phase shift of 2π radians. It can be understood as the change in
velocity of the wave components of a sine wave, when modulated.
Group Velocity
Group Velocity can be defined as the rate at which the wave
propagates through the waveguide. This can be understood as the
rate at which a modulated envelope travels compared to the carrier
alone. This modulated wave travels through the waveguide.
❖ Cut-off Frequency of TE and TM mode:
It is the frequency above which propagation of wave
occurs through waveguide and below which there is no
propagation.
❖ The frequency at which β changes from real to imaginary
is called the cut-off frequency of the mode.
• Cut-off wavelength of TE and TM mode
• It is the wavelength below which propagation of wave occurs through
waveguide and above which there is no propagation

• The very first mode that propagates on the rectangular waveguide is TE10
mode and therefore this mode is called the dominant mode of the
rectangular waveguide
Note:
Analysis of TM modes

❖ From the physical understanding of reflection of waves from

parallel conducting boundaries we expect a standing wave kind of
behavior in x and y directions and a travelling wave kind of
behavior in z direction.
❖ In any case, we expect a wave phenomenon in x,y,z direction which
can be properly represented by putting a negative sign in front of the
constants A2, B2 and β2 .
❖ Instead of negative sign if the positive sign was used the solutions
will have real exponential functions which would not represent
the wave phenomenon.
Analysis of TM mode

where, h2 is transverse propagation constant given by-

Observations for TMmn Modes
❖ The fields existing in the discrete electric and magnetic
field pattern called modes of waveguide.
❖ All field components vary sinusoidal in x and y
directions.
❖ All transverse fields go to zero if either m or n is zero.
❖ Both the indices m and n have to be non-zero for
existence of the TM mode.
❖ TMm0 and TM0n modes can not exist.
❖ Consequently, the lowest order mode which can exist is
mode TM11 mode.
Analysis of TE Mode
❖ For TE mode, Ez = 0 and only Hz is present, all 4
transverse components of the field can be obtained from Hz
only.
❖ In the case of TM mode, the wave equation was solved for
Ez which was tangential to all the four walls of the
waveguides. We therefore had boundary conditions on Ez.
❖ In the TE case however the independent component Hz is
tangential to the walls of the waveguide which do not
impose any boundary conditions on Hz.
Analysis of TE Mode

Where, h2 is transverse propagation constant given by-

Analysis of TE Mode
❖ The fields for the TE modes have similar behavior to the fields of
the TM modes i.e. they exist in the form of discrete pattern.

❖ They have sinusoidal variations in x and y directions, indices m

and n represent number of half cycles of the field amplitudes in
x and y direction respectively.

❖ Unlike TM mode both indices m and n need not be non-zero

for the existence of the TE mode.

❖ TE00 mode cannot exist but TEm0 and TE0n modes can exist.
❖ The lowest order mode for the TE case therefore is TE10 and TE01
.
Phase constant of TE and TM mode

❖ For both TEmn and TMmn modes the modal phase

constant β is given by:

❖ For the mode to be travelling β has to be a real

quantity.

❖ If β becomes imaginary then the fields no more

remain travelling but become exponentially
decaying.
Cut-off Frequency of TE and TM mode:
It is the frequency above which propagation of wave
occurs through waveguide and below which there is
no propagation.
❖ The frequency at which β changes from real to
imaginary is called the cut-off frequency of the
mode. At cut-off frequency, therefore β = 0 gives,
Cut-off Frequency of TE and TM mode

❖ The cut-off frequencies for lowest TM and TE

modes i.e. TM11, TE10 and TE01 can be obtained as:
Cut-off Frequency of TE and TM mode

❖ Since by definition we have a > b we get the

frequencies as-

❖ We can make an important observation that, if at all

the electromagnetic energy travels on a rectangular
waveguide its frequency has to be more than the
lowest cut-off frequency i.e. fc of TE10 mode.

❖ As the order of the mode increases the cut-off

frequency also increases.
❖ The cut-off wavelength is given by

❖ For dominant mode , λc=2a.

❖ For propagation of wave in the waveguide
λ < λc or f > fc
Field Pattern
❖ The visualization of the modal fields is important for
identifying regions from where fields can be tapped
efficiently by the probes.
❖ The field probes are devices which can induce fields inside a
waveguide or extract energy from the fields propagating
inside the waveguide.
❖ One can see from the modal field expression that the fields
are periodic over one guided wavelength λg along the length
of the waveguide.
❖ So essentially one has to develop a three dimensional
picture of the fields only over a block of λg.
Field pattern
Field pattern
Field pattern
Waveguide Parameters
Guide Wavelength Wave Impedance
• It is defined as the • It is defined as ratio of
distance travelled by the strength of electric field
wave in order to in one transverse
undergo a phase shift direction to the strength
of 2π radians. of magnetic field along
• It is related to phase other transverse
constant by the relation direction.
λg = 2π / β
Waveguide Parameters

Guide Wavelength Wave Impedance

• It is defined as the • It is defined as ratio of
distance travelled by the strength of electric field
wave in order to in one transverse
undergo a phase shift direction to the strength
of 2π radians. of magnetic field along
• It is related to phase other transverse
constant by the relation direction.
λg = 2π / β
Waveguide Parameters
Phase Velocity Group Velocity
✔ The phase velocity is ✔ The group velocity of
defined as the velocity a wave is defined as the
with which the wave rate at which the wave
changes phase in terms propagates through the
of the guide wavelength waveguide.
✔ Vp = λg * f ✔ Vg = dω / dβ

The product of phase and group velocities is equal to

square of the velocity of light. i.e. vp * vg = c2
Excitation of waveguides
• Waveguide coupling is a process in which the part of
electromagnetic energy associated with one
waveguide is shared with another waveguide.

• There are three waveguide coupling methods: probe

coupling, loop coupling, and aperture or slot
coupling.

• Directional couplers and power dividers are

examples of aperture or slot coupling in
waveguides.
Excitation of waveguides
Probe coupling
• Probe antenna insertion is usually made
perpendicular to the length of the waveguide, at a
distance equal to the quarter wavelength from the
shorted end of the waveguide.
• Probe coupling is intended for coupling to the
electric field
Excitation of waveguides
Probe coupling
Excitation of waveguides
Loop coupling

• Loop coupling enables coupling to the magnetic

field in the waveguide. In loop coupling, a conductor
is inserted into the waveguide and bends into a loop
Excitation of waveguides
Loop coupling
Excitation of waveguides
Slot or aperture coupling

• When coupling is required between two waveguides

of different cross-sectional areas, aperture coupling
is preferred

• Directional couplers and power dividers are

examples of aperture coupling in waveguides
Excitation of waveguides
Example 1
Example 3
Rectangular Cavity Resonators
• Constructed from closed section of waveguide.
• Waveguide is a type of transmission line.

• Open ended W/G gives radiation loss so W/G resonators

are usually short circuited at both the ends, thus forming a
closed box or cavity.

• E&H energy is stored within the cavity and power can be

dissipated in metallic walls as well as dielectric filling the
cavity.
• Coupling to the resonator can be a small aperture or small
probe or loop.
Example 4
• Find the resonant frequencies of the dominant mode of an
air filled rectangular cavity of dimensions 5cm x 4cm x
2.5cm.The dominant mode for rectangular cavity resonator is
TE101

• Given a = 5 cm, b = 4 cm, d = 2.5 cm

Resonant frequency of TE and TM modes is given by

fr = 6.71 GHz
Circular resonator
Reentrant cavities

Fig : Reentrant Cavities (a) Coaxial cavity (b) Radial Cavity (c) Tunable Cavity
(d) Toroidal Cavity (e) Butterfly cavity
Reentrant cavities
• A re-entrant resonant cavity is made from two cavity
resonators connected perpendicularly by another
rectangular waveguide at both ends.
• Reentrant cavities are designed for klystron tubes and
microwave triodes
• For cavity resonator: Low Inductance and capacitance
to maintain resonance at operating frequency
• Reduced resistance losses
• Reentrant cavity: The cavity resonator with metallic
boundaries extended into the interior of the cavity
• Supports infinite number of resonant frequencies
Reentrant cavities
Coupling to Reentrant cavities
• Loop coupling

• Iris coupling
STRIPLINE
• Also known as “sandwich line” – evolved from “flattened” coaxial
transmission line
• The geometry of a stripline is shown in Figure 3.1.
• Consist of a; (1) top ground plane, (2) bottom ground plane and (3) a
center conductor
• W is the width of thin conducting strip (centered between two wide
conducting ground planes).
• b is the distance of ground planes separation.
• The region between the ground planes is filled with a dielectric.
• Practically, the centered conductor is constructed of thickness b/2.

123
STRIPLINE

Figure 3.1: Stripline transmission line (a) Geometry (b) Electric and
magnetic field lines.
128
STRIPLINE

Figure 3.2: Photograph of a stripline circuit assembly.

129
STRIPLINE
• The phase velocity is given by:

Thus, the propagation constant of the stripline is:

130