1OLP

Integrated Science
Notes 2024
Year 1

Chapter 1. Scientific Endeavour

NAME Answers

CLASS 1 INDEX NO. TEACHER

1
Contents Page
Glossary of Terms 3
Topic Outline 4
1.1 What is Science?
1.1.1 Perception of Science 5
1.2 Lab Safety and Apparatus
1.2.1 Safe Practices in Science 6
1.2.2 Hazard Symbols 7
1.2.3 Common Laboratory Apparatus 8
1.2.4 Bunsen Burner 10
1.2.4.1 Parts of a Bunsen Burner
1.2.4.2 Safety Precautions when using a Bunsen Burner
1.2.4.3 Types of Flames
1.3 How Do We Practice Science?
1.3.1 The Scientific Method 12
1.3.1.1 Identifying Variables 14
1.3.1.2 Observation vs Inference 15
1.4 Measurements
1.4.1 Physical Quantities & SI Units 16
1.4.2 Prefixes 18
1.4.2.1 Unit Conversions
1.4.3 Significant Figures 20
1.4.4 Measurement of Length 21
1.4.4.1 SI Unit and Instrument
1.4.4.2 Precautions using Measuring Tape/Metre Rule
1.4.4.3 Vernier Calipers
1.4.5 Measurement of Temperature 24
1.4.5.1 SI Unit and Instrument
1.4.6 Measurement of Time 25
1.4.6.1 SI Unit and Instrument
1.4.7 Measurement of Mass 26
1.4.7.1 SI Unit and Instrument
1.4.8 Measurement of Volume 27
1.4.8.1 SI Unit and Instrument
1.4.8.2 Measuring Volume of Solids
1.4.8.3 Measuring Volume of Liquids
1.4.8.4 Precautions when taking Volume Readings
1.4.9 Density 31
1.4.10 Accuracy, Precision & Uncertainty in Measure 33
1.5 Representing Data 33
1.5.1 Recording Data 33
1.5.2 Tabulation of Data
1.5.3 Presentation of Data
1.5.3.1. Line Graph

2
Glossary of Terms
Term Description of term

calculate to give a numerical answer, where, in general working should be shown (especially when
two or more steps are involved)

classify to group things based on common characteristics

compare to identify similarities and differences between things or concepts

construct to write or form something not by factual recall but analogy or by using given information

describe to state in words (using diagrams where appropriate) the main points of a topic

discuss to give a critical account of the points involved in the topics

distinguish to identify and understand the differences between objects, concepts and processes

evaluate to consider all factors relating to the object/event before making a judgement

explain to give reasons or make some reference to theory, depending on the context

identify to select and/or name the object, event, concept or process

infer to draw a conclusion based on observations

investigate to find out by carrying out experiments

list to give a number of points or items without elaboration

measure to obtain the quantity concerned directly from a suitable measuring instrument

outline to give the main or essential points of the concepts or processes

predict to state a likely future event based on the given information or rules

recognise to identify facts, characteristics or concepts that are critical (relevant/appropriate) to the
understanding of a situation, event, process or phenomenon

relate to identify and explain the relationships between objects, concepts or processes

show an to recognise and explain the importance of a concept or situation

appreciation

show an to show concern and perception in a particular situation or development

awareness

show an to recall, explain and apply information

understanding

state to give a concise answer with little or no supporting argument

3
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:

Scientific Endeavour
1.1 What is Science?
a) Shows an awareness that science is not confined to the laboratory, but is manifested in all aspects of
our lives
b) Shows a healthy curiosity about the natural phenomena in the world
c) Shows an appreciation of science being a human endeavour, with scientific knowledge contributed
by different civilisations over the centuries
d) Understand the nature of scientific knowledge
e) Understand how scientific knowledge is built from systematic collection and analyses of evidence
and rigorous reasoning based on the evidence
f) Shows an awareness that scientific evidence is subject to multiple interpretations
1.2 Lab Safety and Apparatus
a) Observe laboratory safety rules in the Science laboratory
b) Identify hazard symbols and describe their meanings
c) Use the Bunsen burner appropriately and safely

1.3 How Do We Practice Science?

d) Use scientific inquiry skills such as posing questions, planning and carrying out investigations,
evaluating experimental results and communicating findings
e) Recognise that scientific evidence can be quantitative or qualitative, and can be gathered through
one’s senses or instruments as an extension of one’s senses
f) Differentiate between observation and inference
g) Distinguish between independent, dependent and controlled variables

1.4 Measurements
h) State 4 (out of the 7) fundamental physical quantities – length, mass, time and temperature – use
appropriate instruments to measure them and state their SI units
i) Using prefixes (Mega kilo, deci, centi, mili, micro)
j) Calculate derived units
k) Calculate area, volume, speed, and state their S.I. units
l) recall and apply the relationship density = mass / volume to new situations or to solve related
problems.
m) Describe the errors in measurements and how it can be reduced
n) Show an understanding of precision and accuracy associated with measurements

1.5 Representing Data

o) Tabulate data
p) Plot and interpret graphs

4
1.1 Nature of Science

Science is the process of learning about the natural world through

observations & experimentation.

Scientific ideas are developed through reasoning.

Scientists use evidence to support explanations about how the world

works.

A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some

aspect of the natural world, incorporating facts, laws, inferences and
well-tested hypotheses.

identifying patterns in nature and

Science is the process of

developing explanations of how and why those patterns exist.

Scientists use experimentation and careful observation to collect

evidence to support those explanations.

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1.2 Lab Safety and Apparatus
1.2.1 Safe Practices in Science
These are some safe practices to adopt when in the lab.

General Safety Rules Chemical Safety

• Follow all instructions! • Never touch, taste, or smell chemicals.
• Never perform activities without the • Do not directly inhale chemicals. Waft them
approval and supervision of the teacher. gently under your nose.
• Absolutely no running! • Use only the chemicals needed.
• Do not eat or drink in the laboratory. • Dispose of chemical as instructed by your
• Keep work areas clean and organised. teacher.
• Hair should be tied and long fringe pinned • Wash chemical spills with plenty of water.
up. • Keep all containers closed when not in use.
• Inform teachers of any allergies.
• Always put on safety goggles when
conducting experiments.

Glassware Safety Heating and Fire Safety

• Do not use chipped or broken glassware. • Keep all flammable materials away from
• Never handle broken glassware with your flames.
bare hands. • Do not heat substances in a closed
• Never point a test tube toward yourself or container.
another person. • Use tongs or cloth to handle heated
• Throw broken glass into container labelled glassware.
“BROKEN GLASS”. • Wear goggles when heating.

First Aid After the Experiment

• Report all accidents to your teacher, no • Clean up your work area.
matter how small or minor you think it is. • Unplug all electrical appliances.
• Know where these are located: First-Aid Kit, • Dispose of wastes as instructed by your
Fire Extinguisher, Fire Blanket, Eye Wash teacher.
Station, and Emergency Shower. • Wash your hands after every experiment.
• Push back your stool.
• Remove all your belongings from the lab.

Animal and Plant Safety Using Sharp Instruments

• Do not perform experiments that cause • Handle sharp instruments with care.
harm or pain to animals. • Never cut material towards you; cut away
• Inform your teacher of any allergies to from you.
plants, molds or animals before doing an
activity.
• Wash your hands after handling animals,
animal parts, plants, plant parts or soil.

6
1.2.2 Hazard Symbols
• Hazard symbols are found on containers of chemicals to indicate the potential hazard it possess.

• Each pictogram covers a specific type of hazard and is designed to be immediately recognizable to
anyone handling hazardous material.

• Familiarise yourself with the various symbols and identify the precautions to be taken.

Symbol Symbol
Harmful/ Irritant Toxic chemicals
• Limit contact with • Keep food and drink away
chemical. from handling areas.
• May cause allergic • Wear suitable protective
reactions when in contact equipment.
with skin, eyes etc. • Wash hands after handling
• Wash hands after handling chemicals.
chemicals.
Corrosive Flammable
• Avoid skin contact. • Keep away from sources of
• Wash hands after handling fire.
chemicals.
Explosives Toxic to aquatic life
• Keep away from sources of • Avoid release to the
fire. environment.
• Ensure proper disposal.
Carcinogenic (Cancer-causing) Gases under pressure
• Wear protective gear. • Compressed, liquefied, or
• Minimize contact with dissolved gas under pressure.
chemical. • Keep away from heat.
• Do not inhale any
vapour/fumes.
Radioactive Biohazard
• Wear protective gear. • Wash hands after handling
• Minimize contact with chemicals.
chemical. • Wear protective gear.
• Separate the radioactives • Ensure proper disposal.
from non-radioactives.

7
1.2.3 Common Laboratory Apparatus

Apparatus Diagram Apparatus Diagram

Name: Bunsen burner Name: tripod stand

Function: For heating Function: support the

substances apparatus during heating

Name: retort stand Name: wire gauze

Function: support the Function: used with tripod

apparatus during stand to support apparatus
experiments during heating

Name: Name: beaker

(a) Test tube (a)

(b) Boiling tube

Function: to contain larger
Function: contain small amounts of liquids or
amount of substances for chemicals for heating or
heating or mixing; or to (b) mixing; comes in various
heat small amounts of capacities
substances
Name: gas jar Name: conical flask

Function: used for holding

Function: used for collection liquids or chemicals;
of large volumes of gases suitable for reactions that
involve swirling as it
reduces spillage
Name: measuring cylinder Name: syringe

5
0
4
0
3
Function: measure a volume 0 Function: used for
2
of liquid; comes in various 0
measuring small volume of
capacities e.g. 10ml, 25ml, 1 liquid or gas; comes in
0
50ml various sizes

8
Name: burette Name: pipette

Function: used to measure

Function: used for accurately fixed volumes of
dispensing precise volumes liquids; comes in various
of liquids; smallest division capacities e.g. 20.0 ml 25.0
up to 0.1 cm3 ml

Name: evaporating dish Name: filter funnel

Function: evaporate a liquid Function: used to transfer

from a solution by heating liquids into apparatus with
small opening; support
filter paper when carrying
out filtration

Name: glass rod Name: dropper

Function: used for stirring Function: used to transfer

reacting mixtures very small amount of
liquids (drops) from 1
container to another

Name: test tube holder Name: test tube rack

Function: used to hold a Function: used for holding

test-tube/ boiling tube test tubes before/ after
while being heated they are used

9
1.2.4 Bunsen Burner

1.2.4.1 Parts a Bunsen Burner

flame (outer cone)

flame (inner cone)

barrel
gas tubing
collar
air hole gas tap

base

Part of Bunsen burner Function

Air hole Allow air(oxygen) to enter the burner to mix with the gas.

Collar Control the size of the air-hole.

Barrel Keep the flame away from the gas jet / Allow the gas and air to mix

Gas tap Supplies gas to the Bunsen burner

Base Supports the Bunsen burner

1.2.4.2 Safety Precautions

1. Wear goggles when doing heating experiments.

2. Ensure that there are no flammable items near the flame.

3. Close air hole before lighting to prevent strike back.

Strike back: Happens when there is too much oxygen is mixed with little gas, which causes the flame
to burn at the gas jet, making the barrel of the Bunsen burner very hot.

4. When not using the flame, either

a) turn off the gas supply to turn off Bunsen burner or
b) close the air hole and lower gas supply

10
1.2.4.3 Types of Flames

Luminous flame Non-Luminous flame

• Obtained when air hole is closed • Obtained when air hole is opened
- Little oxygen mixed with gas during - Maximum oxygen mixed with gas during
burning (more incomplete combustion) burning (more complete combustion)

• Orange in colour • Pale / light blue in colour

• Unsteady / Flickering • Steady

• Quiet flame • Noisy flame

• Less hot (300°C, used for gentle heating or • Hotter flame (700°C, used for strong heating)
warming)
• Gives off little smoke (little soot produced)
• Gives off a lot of smoke (produces lots of
soot)

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1.3 How Do We Practice Science?
1.3.1 The Scientific Method
The Scientific Method is a sequence of steps that help a scientist answer those questions that lead to
new discoveries. The scientific method is a procedure that leads an individual through the process of solving a
problem.

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The Scientific Method

1. Observation of phenomenon
Observe your subject and record everything about it using your 5 senses. Include colours, timing, sounds,
temperatures, changes, behavior, and anything that strikes you as interesting or significant.

2. State the question

Propose a research question regarding what you want to find out about.

3. Conducting research
Conduct background research to obtain more information about the matter that you are investigating.
Write down your sources so you can cite your references. Interview experts on a topic. The more you
know about a subject, the easier it will be to conduct your investigation.

4. Form a hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative, testable explanation. Usually, a hypothesis is written in terms of cause and
effect and includes the independent and dependent variable.

Example of hypothesis: When the temperature of water is higher, the sugar takes a shorter time to
dissolve.
Non-example of hypothesis: Temperature of water affects dissolving a sugar.

5. Design an experiment
Design and perform an experiment to test whether your hypothesis is true.
- Identify the independent, dependent and constant variables.
- Choose suitable apparatus and materials for the experiment.
- Decide how to record the observations or measurements.
- Write the procedure to describe how you will conduct the experiment. You can include diagrams of
how the apparatus will be set up.

6. Data Analysis
Record the data and observations and present it in an appropriate form (eg table, graphs etc). Ensure
that all data (including anomalies are included). The data may need to be further analyzed such as by
calculating the average to support your hypothesis. The trend or relationship between the variables can
also be determined based on the data obtained.

7. Conclusion
Based on the data analysis, conclude whether to accept or reject your hypothesis. There is no right or
wrong outcome to an experiment, so either result is fine.

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1.3.1.1 Identifying Variables
• When you design an experiment, you are controlling and measuring variables. There are three types
of variables:

1. Independent Variable:
This is the variable that is being changed.

To ensure a fair experiment, there should only be one independent variable. This is to ensure that
any change in the results can be attributed to the changed variable.

2. Dependent Variable:
This is the variable you measure. It is called the dependent variable because it depends on the
independent variable.

3. Controlled Variables:
These variables are the variables that are kept constant in all experiments. There can be many
controlled variables, but one should always state the ones that must be kept constant to ensure that
the results of the experiment is not affected by it.

Eg: Experiment to determine the effect of bio-fertiliser X on plant growth

Hypothesis: When fertilizer ‘X’ is used, the plant is able to grow taller.

Independent variable: Addition of fertilizer ‘X’.

Dependent variable: Height of the plant after 1 month

Controlled variables: Volume of water used for watering plants, amount of sunlight plant is exposed to

Read Textbook 1A, Pg 12 -15

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1.3.1.2 Observation vs Inference

• Observation is essential in science. Scientists use observation to collect and record data, which enables
them to develop and then test hypotheses and theories.

• Scientists observe in many ways – with their own senses or with tools like magnifying glasses,
thermometers, satellites or stethoscopes. These tools allow for more precise and accurate
observations.

• Observations are made using our own senses or using scientific tools. Any data recorded during an
experiment can be called an observation.

• Inferences are ideas or conclusions based on what you have observed or already know.

Observations are visible or provable facts.

Inferences are opinions or conclusions based on observed facts.

Inferences are guesses based on evidence (observations and prior

knowledge).

Observation is what you see and inference is what you figure out.

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1.4 Measurements
1.4.1 Physical Quantities & SI Units
What is a Physical Quantity?

A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured. It consists of a numerical magnitude and a unit.
For example:

Scientists use standard conventions for measurements to ensure effective communication of scientific ideas.

In the past, the length of an object was measured by comparing it with some part of the body. Here are some
examples.

However, measuring by using the hand or foot was very inaccurate and confusing. Thus in 1960, scientists
devised a system of units for the measurement of physical quantities. This was called the International
System of Units (SI Units). The SI Units is based on the metric system of measurement and is used
by scientists as the standard set of units for scientific measurement.

All the physical quantities can be divided into base quantities and derived quantities.
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1. Base quantities are physical quantities that cannot be expressed or defined from others. E.g.
length, mass, time.
2. Derived quantities are physical quantities defined in terms of two or more base quantities. E.g.
speed is a physical quantity derived from the base quantities of length and time.

The 7 base quantities and 7 base SI units are shown in the table below.

Base quantity SI base unit Symbol Other units

length metre m µm, cm, km, inch, mile, feet
mass kilogram kg gram, pound, stone
time second s minute, hour, day, year
temperature kelvin K C, F

All other physical quantities can be derived from these seven base quantities. These are the derived quantities.

Derived How derived units are SI derived unit Symbol

quantity expressed in terms of base
quantities
area length x width square metre m2
volume length x width x height cubic metre m3
density mass ÷ volume kilogram per cubic meter kg/m2
speed distance ÷ time metres per second m/s
acceleration change in speed ÷ time metres per second squared m/s2

Physical Quantities

Base quantities Derived quantities

Area
Length Volume
Mass Density
Time Speed
Temperature Acceleration

1.4.2 Prefixes
17
Instead of writing a long number with many
zeros, we can use prefixes.

Bacteria is very small, it is about 1 µm long.

The Sun is 149.342 Gm (Giga meters) away

from us.

The use of prefixes enables us to reduce the 103 means 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000

number of zeroes. The table below lists the SI prefixes. 10-1 means 1 ÷ 10 = 0.1
Prefix mega kilo deci centi milli micro
Symbol M k d c m µ
Factor 106 103 10−1 10−2 10−3 10−6

Powers of Ten https://youtu.be/0fKBhvDjuy0

Cell Size and Scale https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/cells/scale/

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1.4.2.1 Unit Conversions

To convert from kilo or mega to any unit, To convert from any unit to deci, centi,
simply multiply by the factor milli or micro, simply multiply by the factor

X factor X factor

Mega (M) kilo (k) BASE UNIT deci (d) centi (c) milli (m) micro (µ)
1000 000 1 000 (g,m,s etc) 10 100 1 000 1 000 000

÷ factor ÷ factor

To convert from any unit to kilo or mega To convert from deci, centi, milli or micro to
to, simply divide by the factor any unit, simply divide by the factor

Steps to convert units:

Step 1: Convert the unit given to the base unit.
Step 2: Convert the base unit to the unit in question.

Worked examples on expressing quantities in terms of SI units:

1) Express 2.35 cm in mm Step 2: Convert the base

unit to the unit in question.
Step 1: Convert to base x1000
unit (metres) first
÷100
2.35 cm = 0.0235 m = 0.235 mm

2) Express 0.338 km in cm
x1000 x100
0.338 km = 338 m = 33 800 cm

3) Express 1.89 ml in l
÷1000
1.89 ml = 0.00189l

4) Express 0.0013 kg in μg
x1000 x1000 000
0.0013 kg = 1.3 g = 1 300 000 μg

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Change the following as indicated:

(i) 1.2 km = ……1200……………. m (ii) 25 cm = …………0.25………………. m

(iii) 2.6 km = ………260000………. cm (iv) 162 mm = …………16.2………. cm

(v) 2 km = …………20 000….dm (vi) 135 mg = ………0.000135…… kg

(vii) 3200 m = …0.0032…….Mm (viii) 45 Mm = ……45 000………. km

(ix) 2.6 kg = ………2 600 000………. mg (x) 0.009 kg = ……9 000 000…… µg

(xi) 300 mg = ……0.0003……. kg (xii) 1750 g = ………1.75…………. kg

(xiii) 0.25 dm3 = …………250….. cm3 (xiv) 2234 cm3 = ………2.234…….. dm3

Read Textbook 1A, Pg 16 -17

1.4.3 Significant Figures

Significant figures are important because they tell us how good the data we are using are.

Rules for determining Significant Figures

(1) All non-zero digits are significant:

359 has 3 significant figures,

1.234 has 4 significant figures,
1.2 has 2 significant figures.

(2) Any zeroes after non-zero digits are significant:

205 has 3 significant figures.

508001 has 6 significant figures.
1000 has 5 significant figures
3.07 has 3 significant figures.

(3) Zeros before a non-zero digits are NOT significant.

0.350 has 3 significant figures,

452.0 has 4 significant figures,
0.0070 has 2 significant figures,
0.0200 has 3 significant figures,

The Significant Figure Rule (s.f. rule)

In multiplication and division, the significant figure rule is to express the final answer with
the smallest significant figure of the numbers being multiplied.
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1.4.4 Measurement of Length
1.4.4.1 SI Unit and Instruments

• The SI unit for length is the metre (m)

• Some of the common instruments that we will use in school to measure lengths are:
o Metre rule
o Tape measure
o Vernier Calipers
• When measuring length, use an instrument suitable for the size of length to be
measured that would give the highest precision.

Different instruments are

needed to measure different-
sized objects.

Length to be measured Suitable instrument Precision of instrument

More than 1 m Measuring tape 0.1 cm
Between 10 cm to 1 m Metre or half-metre rule 0.1 cm
Between 1 cm to 10 cm Vernier callipers 0.01 cm

Understanding the precision of an instrument

• The precision of an instrument refers to the smallest measurement it can measure.
• When recording a measurement, it has to be recorded according to the precision of the
instrument.
• Eg:
Length measured Instrument used Recorded data
150 cm Measuring tape 150.0 cm
13 cm Metre rule 13.0 cm
4 cm Vernier callipers 4.00 cm

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1.4.4.2 Precautions using Measuring Tape/Metre Rule
(i) To prevent zero error:
Measure from the 1.0 cm mark and then subtract 1.0 cm from the reading.

The reason is that for most metre rules, the zero mark is at the very end of the rule, and so the wear and
tear of the end of the rule may make the mark unsuitable for the use in measurement.

(ii) To prevent parallax error:

The eye must be positioned vertically above and perpendicular (at 90°) to the mark to be read when
taking the readings. This is to avoid parallax error, which is the error in reading caused by the
incorrect positioning of the eye.

1.4.4.3 Vernier Calipers

• The Vernier Calipers has a precision of 0.01 cm.

• A useful instrument to measure both internal and external diameters of objects.
• It consists of a main scale and a sliding vernier scale.
• The vernier calipers has outside jaws for measuring the external diameter of objects, inside jaws for
measuring the internal diameters of tubes and containers and a depth bar to measure the depth of a
container.

Depth bar used to

measure the depth of an
object.

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In the table below, identify the instruments used to measure length and answer the following
questions

Instrument What unit(s) does What length is State the precision of the
the instrument the smallest instrument
measure length in? division on the
instrument?

centimetres (cm) and 1 mm or 0.1 cm 0.1 cm

millimetres (mm)

Name: Metre rule

centimetres (cm) and 1 mm or 0.1 cm 0.1 cm

millimetres (mm)

Name: Measuring tape

Main scale:
centimetres (cm) 0.1 cm 0.01 cm

Vernier scale:
millimetres (mm) 0.01cm

Name: Vernier calipers

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1.4.5 Measurement of Temperature
1.4.5.1 SI Unit and Instrument
• The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin (K)
• Another common unit used is the degree Celsius, °C
• The thermometer is used to measure temperature.

Types of thermometer:

a) Liquid-in-glass thermometer
o Commonly used in the lab. The liquid in the thermometer is mainly alcohol.
o The liquid expands or contracts as temperature changes and the length of the thread is calibrated to
measure the temperature.
o Precision: 0.5°C.

(b) Other types of thermometers

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1.4.6 Measurement of Time

1.4.6.1 SI Unit and Instrument

• The SI unit for time is the second (s).

• The stopwatch is used to measure short time intervals. The two types of stopwatches are:

Analogue stopwatch → reads up to ± 0.1 s (precision) Digital stopwatch → reads up to ± 0.01 s (precision)
more precise than an analogue stopwatch

Reading the electronic stopwatch

2 min 39.54 s = (2 x 60) s + 39.54 s

= (120 + 39.54) s
= 159.54 s = 160 s (to the nearest second)

Convert the following electronic stopwatch readings to the nearest second.

a) 00 14 43 b) 01 37 89 c) 03 03 50

14 s 1 min 38 s = 98 s 3 min 4 s = 184 s

While a stopwatch is started and stopped by hand, an error can be caused. This is called the human reaction
time error and can be quite a large fraction of a second.

The human reaction time is usually different for different people, but it is around 0.2 s for most people.

Convert the following times:

(i) 3.5 hours = …………210………. minutes (ii) 3.5 hours = …………12600………. second

(iii) 2400 minutes = ………40……………. hours (iv) 400 seconds = …………6.67………. minutes
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1.4.7 Measurement of Mass
1.4.7.1 SI Unit and Instrument
• The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg)
• Unit used more frequently is the gram (g)
• The electronic balance is used to measure mass.
• The electronic balance has a precision of 0.01 g.

Electronic Balance

The electronic balance is used to measure mass but it actually measures weight and the value is
electronically converted to mass. This instrument will only be accurate when used on Earth.

Steps to use the electronic balance

 Switch on the Power.
 Press ‘TARE’ to zero the scale.
 Place object to be weighed on the pan.
 Close the plastic doors (if applicable).
 Read off the display when it has stabilised.

WHAT'S THE DIFFERENCE between mass and weight?

Many people use these terms interchangeably, but that only works because we all
live on Earth. If we start taking up residence in the moon or on other planets, we'll
have to get more precise when we talk about how much stuff is in our stuff.

Watch the video “Is Mass the Same as Weight?” (https://youtu.be/Y8-T8RouhPA)

Mass is a measure the number of particles in an object.

The SI unit of mass is kg.

Weight is a measure of the force that gravity is pulling on the same object.
The unit for weight is the Newton.

[You will learn more about mass, weight and gravity in the next chapter.]

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1.4.8 Measurement of Volume
1.4.8.1 SI Unit

• Volume is the amount of 3-dimensional space occupied by a substance.

• The SI unit of volume is the cubic metre (m3).
• Other common units of volume are the
cubic centimeter (cm3), Note:
cubic decimeter (dm3), 1 dm3 = 1000 ml = 1000 cm3 = 1 l
litre (l), 1 ml = 1 cm3
millilitre (ml).

1.4.8.2 Measuring Volume of Solids

• For solid objects with regular shapes, we can calculate their volumes using a formula. The table below
shows some examples of volumes of regular solids.

Calculate the volume of the rectangular box below

in m3.

1.0 cm

3.0 cm 12.0 cm

Volume = Length x Breadth x Height

= 0.12 m x 0.03 m x 0.01 m
= 0.000036 m3

• For solids with irregular shapes, we can determine their volume using the displacement of water
method.
• A measuring cylinder can be partially filled with water and the object is added to it. The difference in the
volume of water is the volume of the object

Vol of rock = 22 – 16 = 6 cm3

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1.4.8.3 Measuring Volume of Liquids

• Liquids can be measured using a syringe, measuring cylinder, pipettes or burettes, depending on the
volume of liquid and the accuracy of the measurement.

a) Beaker

o Has different sizes and capacities. (eg 50 cm3, 250 cm3, 500 cm3 etc)
o Is the least accurate apparatus to measure volumes.
o Used to measure approximate volumes as its markings are far apart.
o Readings recorded to whole numbers.

b) Measuring cylinder
o Has different sizes and capacities. (eg 10 cm3, 50 cm3, 100 cm3)
o Is able to measure volumes more accurately than a beaker.
o Precision of measuring cylinders range from 0.2 cm3 to 1 cm3,
depending on the size of the measuring cylinder.
o The zero marking of the measuring cylinder starts from the
bottom as we are measuring the volume of liquid that is
contained in the measuring cylinder.

c) Syringe
o Used to measure various volumes of liquid.
o When drawing the liquid, no bubbles should be trapped in syringe
bottom ring
the syringe. eye level top ring
o The level of liquid should be read at the top ring as shown liquid level
in the diagram. eye

d) Burette
o Can measure volumes of liquid accurately.
o Has a precision of 0.05 cm3.
o Unlike the measuring cylinder and beaker, the zero scale on a burette is written on top.
This is because the burette reading tells you how much liquid has been dispensed,
instead of telling you how much liquid the burette contains.
o First, it is filled to a predetermined level and the valve is opened to let liquid flow out.
After the valve is closed, the difference in levels would be the volume of liquid dispensed.
valve

Initial reading: 0.20 cm3

Final reading: 22.20 cm3
Volume of liquid dispensed = 22.20 – 0.20
= 22.00 cm3

28
e) Pipette
o Can be used to measure volumes of liquid accurately.
o Pipettes can measure specific volumes depending on the
size of the pipette.
o Precision of pipette: 25.0 cm3
o It is usually used in conjunction with a pipette filler which
helps to draw the liquid up into the pipette.

1.4.8.4 Precautions when taking Volume Readings

• When measuring liquids in tubes, the surface of the liquid on top is not straight. It is slightly curved and
this curved part of the liquid that forms is called a meniscus.

1. Take readings from the bottom of meniscus at eye level.

2. Apparatus such as measuring cylinders must be placed on

a flat surface while burettes, pipettes and thermometers
must be held vertically upright when readings are being
taken.

Incorrect reading
(too high)

20.4 Correct reading

ml
20.3 (same level)
ml
20.1 Note: if the bottom of the meniscus
ml Incorrect reading
lies between two lines, then the
(too low) reading obtained also be half of the
lower and upper reading.

State the volume of liquid shown below and whether it is a measuring cylinder or burette:

Reading: 24.20 cm3 6.35 cm3 49.00 cm3 83.0 cm3

Measuring Burette Measuring cylinder burette Measuring cylinder

cylinder/
burette

29
Instruments for measuring volume- Summary
Beaker Measuring cylinder Burette Pipette

Purpose - Least accurate and precise Measures volume of liquid it Measure the volume of Measures fixed volume of
apparatus to measure contains, and can also liquid dispensed from liquid it contains, and can
approximate volumes of dispense the same volume, the tap. also dispense the same
liquids though not as easily as a volume
0 cm3 mark is at the top
burette.
- Can be used to measure of apparatus
0 cm3 mark is at the bottom
large volumes of liquids
of apparatus

Capacity Various (50 cm3, 100 cm3, 10.0 cm3 50 cm3, 100 cm3 50.0 cm3 Various (The one in our lab
250 cm3 etc) is 25.0 cm3)

Precision of instrument Not meaningful 0.2 cm3 1 cm3 0.1 cm3 0.1 cm3
(smallest division)
There is only one marking
on instrument

Precision of readings Whole number Nearest Nearest 0.5 cm3 Nearest 0.1 cm3
recorded 0.1 cm3 0.05 cm3

Accuracy Not accurate Accurate Very Accurate Very Accurate

30
1.4.9 Density
• Density is defined as the mass per unit volume.
• The symbol used to represent density is ρ (rho).
• Density has units of kg/m3 or g/cm3.

This can be represented by the equation

Effects of density

Density of solid is greater than Density of solid is the same as Density of solid is lower than
density of liquid → solid sinks density of liquid → solid will be density of liquid → solid floats
suspended

Watch Video: Archimedes and the Gold Crown

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KMNwXUCXLdk

Watch video: Density Facts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zlkpZZW29b0

1. Consider a cube of wood and a cube of metal of the same volume. State which cube is denser and suggest
why it is so.

………………………………………………………………………………………………..................……………………………………………

…………………………………………………............................…………………………………………………...............................

2. A student fills a cup with 100 cm3 of water. She then adds 20 cm3 of syrup. If the density of the water is 1.0
gcm-3 and the density of syrup is 1.6 gcm-3, determine the density of the syrup drink that the student has
mixed.

31
3. Complete the following table.

Material Mass / g Volume / cm3 Density / (g/cm3)

Air 1 000 0.0012
Styrofoam 1 000 000 0.045
Oil 60 000 0.80
Oak / Teak (wood) 30 000 0.75
Lithium (metal) 50 0.53
Aluminium 500 2.7
Iron / steel 20 000 7.9
Copper 50 8.9
Lead** 1 500 11.3
Mercury 0.5 13.6
Gold 150 19.3

The anomalous nature of water

FYI
In normal situations, when a substance is heated, it expands and when cooled, it contracts.
The anomalous expansion of water is an abnormal property of water whereby it expands instead of contracting
when the temperature goes from 4o C to 0o C, and it becomes less dense

At 4oC, water has its highest density and contracts as the temperature rises from 0oC to 4oC. This means that in
regions where winter is severe, lakes cool at the surface and when the water reaches 4oC and that water being
denser will sink so water that freezes, will be at the surface.

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1.4.10 Accuracy and Precision
• Accuracy and precision (reliability) of data are important concepts, as they relate to any experimental
measurement that you would make.

This target has been struck with a high degree of precision, yet a low degree of
accuracy.

This target has been struck with a high degree of accuracy, yet a low degree of
precision.

• Accuracy - is concerned with how close a reading is to the ‘true value’ of an experiment.
• Precision refers to how close the readings are for an experiment.
• The accuracy and precision depends on the equipment used (eg beaker vs burette), the experimenter’s skill and
the techniques involved.
• In choosing different instruments for measuring the same physical quantity e.g. length, the data recorded will
reflect the degree of precision.
• In Science, both accuracy and precision are important!
• How to increase accuracy in an experiment:
o Repeat the experiment multiple times to obtain an average reading. This way, the average reading is closer
to the true value.
• How to improve precision in an experiment:
Use an apparatus with a higher degree of precision; eg using burette instead of measuring cylinder

Read Textbook 1A, Pg 16 - 24

For theories to be developed and then tested, it is necessary to make measurements, interpret the data obtained,
refine the techniques used, employ higher precision instruments and repeat the measurement a few times and in
different ways.

We wish that every reading we are taking is the accurate value of the quantity we want to measure. We know that
this is impossible because

(a) the instrument used may have inherent defects,

(b) we are humans and are prone to make mistakes, and
(c) we do not know the exact ‘true’ value of the quantity we are measuring.

33
Understanding How Calculating the Average Increases Accuracy

Take the swing of the pendulum for example. You would use a stopwatch to time the swing of the pendulum. You
will notice that your results will vary each time you repeat your experiment.

However, after taking, say, 4 readings, you will notice that, though the readings are different, they are hovering
around a certain value. Though you will never know the TRUE value of the time taken for the swing, you can
confidently conclude that the values obtained by your measurement are quite close to the true value. You can also
say that repeating the measurements many times, e.g. 50 times, the AVERAGE VALUE obtained will be very
close to the true value.
Understanding the Impact of the Choice of Instrument

Instrument Metre rule Vernier Caliper

Reading 1.2 ± 0.1 cm 1.21 ± 0.01 cm
Decimal places 1 2

It can be seen that the degree of precision increases from the metre rule to the Vernier Caliper. The number of
decimal places also increases – from 1 to 2. In fact, the number of decimal places in a measurement gives an indication
of the precision of the measurement.

The choice of any instrument is only one of the factors affecting the accuracy of a reading. One may use a high
precision instrument in measurement but if poor experimental techniques are used, the degree of accuracy of the
reading and the confidence of the reading taken by the experimenter will be affected.

Thus to optimize accuracy, the choice of instrument AND the techniques of measurements are important.
Experimental techniques must reduce, not eliminate, any uncertainties in readings.

average increases the accuracy of

Note: Taking multiple readings and obtaining an

the measurement but DOES NOT increase the precision of the measurement. The
precision only depends on the instrument used.

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1.5 Representing Data
1.5.1 Recording Data
After observations and measurements are made, the information obtained needs to be presented in a manner that
is useful and meaningful.

1.5.2 Tabulation of data

• numerical data collected should be presented in a table format.
• a table is able to summarize large amounts of data into something that is smaller and easy to read
• a table consists of rows and columns

Eg: In an experiment to determine the effect of temperature on the rate of dissolving, the temperature of water
was measured before adding sugar, and the time taken for the sugar to dissolve is measured.

Independent variable: Temperature of water Dependent variable: Time taken for sugar to dissolve

In this experiment, the data recorded can be presented in a table as shown in the table below.

Features of a table
Each column has a relevant heading and
unit to indicate the variable measured
Data is organised into and also the unit used.
columns, where each column
represents 1 variable Temperature/°C Time taken / s

36.5 43

65.0 21
Note: The independent
variable should be in
the first column

1. Data recorded in the table should

not have any units.
2. Data recorded should follow the
precision of the instrument.
* In Physics, the “Solidus method” is
adopted. Symbols are used to represent
quantities.
e.g. Let temperature= T/° C
Let time taken= t/s

The heading of the table would therefore

change accordingly; T/° C and t/s

35
Example
Kyleen conducted an investigation to determine how much a spring extends as she increases the mass of the load.

DRAWING OF SET-UP

spiral metre-rule
spring

slotted mass
(load)

The results of the experiments are shown below.

Dependent variable
Independent
with unit separated
variable in first
with a slash.
column with unit.

Mass of load / g Length of extension / cm

0 0.0
50 3.1
100 6.2
150 9.5
200 11.8
250 15.4
300 18.5

Readings follow the degree of

Data is recorded without precision of the instrument
any units. used to measure them.
In this case it is a ruler with a
precision of 0.1 cm

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1.5.3 Presentation of data
• After the recording of data, one needs to analyse the data to look out for trends, relationships etc.
• For data analysis, it may be easier to make sense of the data by using graphs or charts.
• In Science, we often use a line graph to determine the relationship between two variables.

• Data that is gathered can be displayed as a:

1. pie chart
2. bar graph
3. histogram
4. leaf and stem diagram
5. line graph

You will learn more about the other graphs in Math later in the year. We shall focus just on line graph for the
moment.

1.5.3.1 Line graph

 Used to show information that changes over time or the relationship between 2 variables
 The line graph comprises of two axes.
 horizontal axis is known as the x-axis (independent variable) while
 vertical axis is the y-axis (dependent variable)
 To indicate the axis of a graph, it is often written as “graph of y axis against x axis”.
Plotting of line graph [SPLAT]
 Scale: the graph (1st point to last point) must cover more than ½ the graphing area.
- The scale needs to be consistent
 Points are correctly marked with a small ‘x’.
 Line of best fit is drawn- either straight line or smooth curve passing through as many points as
possible; not ‘joining the dots’.
Features of line of best fit:
- should be a smooth line or curve (DO NOT SKETCH!)
- lies very close to the points
- has an approximately equal number of points above and below the line
 Axes are correctly plotted and labelled.
- Axes must be correctly labelled (follow the headings in the table) and the precision of the values
must also follow the precision of the table.
 Title of graph is written at the top: [‘Graph of y against x’]
https://www2.nau.edu/lrm22/lessons/graph_tips/graph_tips.html#:~:text=The%20Axes,are%20(0%2C0).

37
Format for title: 5
Graph of Y-axis/ units

Y-axis label
4 against X-axis/units

with units
Graph of time/s against length of pendulum/cm
_
Time/s

180
Setting the axes and scale:
- Draw the X-axis and Y-axis 1
- Each axis is drawn on a bold
line for easy reading
160 - Choose an appropriate scale 
and mark every big square
according to the precision
in the table
2
140 Plot your points:
- Use a sharp pencil
- Mark with ‘x’
 - Check that points are
plotted accurately
120

100

3
80 Drawing the line of best fit:
- Draw a STRAIGHT line
- Use a sharp pencil
- The line should go through as many
 data points as possible
60 - Line of best fit need not go through
all the points.
- Points, however, should be evenly
distributed i.e. same number of plots
above the line as below.
40
 3
Line should
exceed the
first/ last
20 point by 1 cm 4
X-axis label
with units
Origin is
always
labelled. 0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Length of pendulum / cm

38