Department of Distance Education

Punjabi University, Patiala

Class : B.Ed.-II Semester : 4

Paper : XIX (Gender, School and Society) Unit : I
Medium : English

Lesson No.
1.1 : Gender: Concept, Social, Psychological and
Cultural Constructs of Gender
1.2 : Gender Role of Perception: Masculinity and
femininity, feminism and patriarchy.
1.3 : Gender Equity, Gender Equality & Gender
Roles, Gender Biases and Gender
Stereotyping.
1.4 : Gender Identity: Concept and Development,
Gender Issue in Indian Society.

Department website : www.pbidde.org

B.Ed. Semester-IV 1 Paper-XIX

B.Ed. Semester-IV Paper-XIX

Gender, School and Society

Lesson no. 1.1 Author:Dr. Manju Sood

Gender: Concept, Social, Psychological and Cultural Constructs of Gender

1.1 Objectives of the lesson

1.2 Concept of Gender
1.3 Social Construction of Gender
1.4 Cultural Construct of Gender
1.5 Psychological Construct of Gender
1.6 Suggested Questions
1.7 Suggested Readings

1.1 Objectives of the lesson:

After going through the lesson, the students will be able to:
-Write the concept of gender.
-Define Gender.
-Differentiate between the terms “Sex” and “Gender”.
-Describe social construct of gender.
-Define Gender as a Social Construct.
-Give examples of Social constructs of Gender.
-Explain cultural construct of gender.
-Give examples of a cultural construct.
-Discuss psychological construct of gender.

1.2 CONCEPT OF GENDER:-

The terms “Sex” and “Gender” may appear to be similar. “Sex” and “Gender”
words are used to replace each other. But, in fact they have very clear distinctions. “Sex”
is decided biologically while gender is constructed on the basis of social roles of men and
women. Let’s first try to understand the meaning of Sex.

A) MEANING OF TERM “SEX”:- Captalise each first letter

The term “Sex” refers to the differences in the biological characteristics of males
and females whereas term “Gender” refers to the differences in the role of a male and
B.Ed. Semester-IV 2 Paper-XIX

female in the society Sex represents the biological characteristics which are acquired
through genetic constitution. It shows that males and females have different physiological
and reproductive capabilities. Sex is determined by birth. It is not changed throughout life
except in cases where individuals take the help of medical facilities. Sex is universal. The
term “Sex” is used to show the differences that male and females have in their
physiological and anatomical structures. Sex of an individual is decided by his or her
genetic constitution. Humans have an additional pair of sex chromosomes for a total of
46 chromosomes. The sex chromosomes are referred to as X and Y, and their
combination determine a person’s sex. Typically, human females have two X
chromosomes while males possess on “XY” pairing.
It is the “Y” chromosome in men, which is responsible for male characteristics.
Male characteristics do exist in male due to male hormones released by activity of “Y”
chromosome. In females,“X” chromosome is responsible for female hormones and
thereby produces female characteristics’ in child.
There can be a case of a child born with Intersex. It happens rarely i.e. 1: 1500
cases. That can be the case when there is abnormality in pairing of XX or XY
combination.
B) Concept and Meaning of Gender:-
Gender is always defined in terms of economic, political, social and cultural
context. The meaning of the term “Gender” is not universal. It means it varies across
societies and time period. Gender represents the particular characteristics and roles, in a
socio cultural context that are specific to a certain group of people in relation to their sex
and sexuality. Gender is not synonymous to women or sexual differences. It signifies the
social and cultural role of a particular sex within a particular society. Gender means
culturally and socially constructed roles, responsibilities, privileges, relations and
expectations of women(girls) and men(boys). Its assignment to a particular individual is
done not on the basis of genetics, but on the basis of their gender roles in their social
interactions in their surroundings with their family members, media, peers and education.
Gender is defined in context to the roles and responsibilities that the men and women
carry in their families, societies and cultures.The Concept of Gender may be explained in
reference to the presumptions which do exist about the characteristics, aptitudes and
likely behaviors of both females and males.
C) Definitions of Gender
1. A working definition of Gender : People are born female or male or transgender,
but are forced to learn to be girls and boys who grow into women and men. They
are taught appropriate behaviour and attitudes according to defined gender roles
B.Ed. Semester-IV 3 Paper-XIX

and activities. This learned behaviour is what makes up gender identity, and
determines gender roles.
2. According to Merriam-webster dictionary: Gender is a subclass within a
grammatical class (such as noun, pronoun, adjective, or verb) of a language that
is partly arbitrary but also partly based on distinguishable characteristics (such
as shape, social rank, manner of existence, or sex) and that determines
agreement with and selection of other words or grammatical forms.
3. GenderisdefinedbyFood and Agriculture Organisation of
UNO( FAO)as‘therelationsbetweenmenandwomen,bothperceptualandmaterial.Ge
nderisnot
determinedbiologically,asaresultofsexualcharacteristicsofeitherwomenormen,but is
constructedsocially.Itisacentralorganizingprincipleofsocieties,andoftengovernsthe
processesofproductionandreproduction,consumptionanddistribution’(FAO,1997).
4. According toKishor (2006) , there are three aspects of gender as given below:-
1) Gender tends not be value neutral: It means that there exists differences
and in equality in roles, rights and obligations assigned to males and females.
2) Gender involves differences in power

It implies that there are two aspects of power differences:- i) Power to and
ii) Power over
i) Power to: the meaning is that there is more power with a particular gender
in various fields like legal , rights, resources, knowledge, personal goals and
decreased role in all domains of human activity.
ii) Power over:- One of the gender has more control over social and family
resources, more control over decision making, cultural and religious beliefs
and one’s own and other’s body.
3) Gender is varied:- Gender roles are constructed in social context. Thus,
gender roles tends to change with change in geographical areas, societies and
cultures.
5. The concept of gender can be generalized as :-
i) It is not interchangeable with term “Sex”.
ii) It is not determined biologically.
iii) It is determined socially.
iv) It is assigned on the basis of roles and responsibilities expected from either
men or women and thus differentiate between both genders.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 4 Paper-XIX

v) It refers to individual’s perceptions of sexuality and malleable concepts of

masculinity and femininity.
vi) I is the commonly shared expectation sand norms with in a society about
appropriate male and female behavior, characteristics, roles and
responsibilities.
vii) It specifiesthemannersinwhichfemalesandmalesinteractwitheachother.
viii) Therolesandexpectations for males and femalesare taught andlearnt.
ix) The concept of gender canchangeovertimeand across cultures.
D) Differences between the terms “Sex” and “Gender”
The following points will clarify the differences between the terms “Sex” and
“Gender”.
1. The term “Sex” represents biological differences which are natural
whereas “Gender” represents social differences.
2. The meaning of term “Sex” refers to physiological differences where as
the meaning of term Gender refers to social, cultural roles.
3. An individual born with sex Male or female finds it difficult to change
whereas there is possibility of Change in Gender identity as it is ascribed by the
socity.
4. Sex differences have been found to exist since the existence of humans
but gender roles have been differenet at different time spans and in differnet
societies.
5. The policies for sex differnences are also framed by keeping in mind the
physical body while the same are prepared keeping in view the gender biases,
Gender stereotypes and Gender roles.
On the whole, it can be generalized that, “sex” refers to biological
characteristics and “gender” refers to the individual’s and society’s perceptions of
sexuality and the malleable concepts of masculinity and femininity.

1.3 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER:

A) Meaning of Social Construct:-

A construct is an idea or theory which is subjective and not based on
empirical evidence. Social means in society. Thus social construct is an idea
which does not exist in objective reality, but it exists because of the interactions
of people in the society. It does not exist there independently in the natural world.
It is created by the society. Social constructs in the society are created by cultural
B.Ed. Semester-IV 5 Paper-XIX

practices and norms. These social constructs, in turn, govern the practices,
customs and rules concerning the ways we use, view and understand them. These
appear to exist in social context and that also because of our subjective thoughts.

B) Gender : A Social Construct:

Many sociological and philosophical theories highlight the fact that
gender is socially constructed. Most of the social constructivists are of the view
that there is no built-in truth to gender. Gender is constructed by the social
responsibility expected and role performed by a group belonging to a particular
gender. The society and culture prescribes certain gender roles as appropriate for
a group of people belonging to a specific gender. Each one belonging to a
particular gender is expected to perform those ideal roles. It is true that the
behavior or acts performed by men and women in society are different due to the
norms of the society. Some are still of the view that the gender roles performed
are influenced by biological factors as well. The philosophical principle which is
the ground for considering gender as a social construct is that gender is ascribed
by the society or assigned by the society. It should also be considered that society
assigns the gender roles based on biological sex differences. Gender as a social
construct affects the behavior patterns, roles, responsibilities and attitudes of men
and women in all societies. Gender also defines the social and cultural role of men
and women in a society. Gender ascription are not genetical but are social. These
occur as the members of a particular group react in their social institutions like
family, school, friends and media. The members,i.e. the men and women, perform
as per the prescribed norms of the society. Therefore gender is considered as a
social construct.
C) Sex category to Gender Construction in Society:-
1 When a child is born, that is given a sex category i.e. boy or girl.
2 The parents dress them according to the societal norms for a particular sex
category. For example, the boys are made to wear a shirt and shorts
whereas girls are made to wear skirts and frocks etc. in our present Indian
society.
3 Even the other gender markers and naming etc. is done in a way that is
expected from a particular sex category.
4 People in the society react or behave towards the child by recognizing
his/her sex category. Slowly child also starts adapting to that behaviour, he
B.Ed. Semester-IV 6 Paper-XIX

receives as being a boy or a girl and starts behaving as per the expected
norms of the society.
5 When the children learn to speak, they start referring themselves as
members of their gender.
6 Even the mother and father are expected to behave in a particular manner.
7 As adults, the people of different genders are expected to do different
kinds of jobs.
8 Their job makes them to have different experiences, at work as men and
women and develop different feelings, consciousness, relationships and
skills. This leads them to have different gender roles i.e. muscular or
Feminine.
9 All the above given steps lead to construction of gender in society or make
gender as a social construct.
D) Reasons for Gender Construction in Society:-
1. In every society human beings live their lives as per the gender and its
related roles and responsibilities. Each society works on various principles
such as vision of labour, allocation of available resources, assigning
responsibility for rearing children, older and other dependents,
preservance and maintenance of common culture and values, vital
leadership and other cultural and symbolic products.
2. Every social system works efficiently and keeps it maintained because of
interdependence of its elements in the society. The interdependence of the
elements in the society assigns a particular role to its elements after
classifying them. This classification of its people in the society is done
according to their age and gender. The social system or society then
constructs similarities and differences in these groups to base assigning of
different roles and responsibilities to them.
3. The assignments are given either on the criteria of capabilities, abilities
and talents or on the basis of cast , gender , race andethmicity of a group
of members . Members of a particular gender group are also expected to
do certain prescribed roles and responsibilities. These members of that
particular group get a particular kind of experience as per the work alloted
to them and thus derive personality characteristics peculiar to that group.
4. Thus it can be safely said that it is not that the “Sex” assigned to child by
birth, genes, hormones and other biological features to that lead to
particular gender roles in society. These factors are just to act as rough
B.Ed. Semester-IV 7 Paper-XIX

indicators. It can be said that characteristics related to a particular gender

are socially constructed imitation, teaching learning and implications. It is
the social practices of social norms that lead to gender construction.

E) Definitions of Gender as a Social Construct:

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines gender as:

“Gender refers to the socially constructed characteristics of women and
men, such as norms, roles, and relationships of and between groups of women and
men. It varies from society to society and can be changed.”
According toInternational LabourOrganisation(ILO), “ Gender refers
to the social differences between men and women, which are learned, which vary
widely among societies and cultures and change over time.”

F) Examples of Gender as a social construct and change across in it

across socieites and time
Gender roles in some societies are more rigid than those in others. The
degree of decision-making and financial responsibility expected of each gender
and the time that women or men are expected to spend on homemaking and
rearing children varies between cultures. Within the wider culture, families too
have their norms. Gender roles are not set in stone.

1. High heels for men or women?

In many societies, men are increasingly taking on roles traditionally seen as
belonging to women, and women are playing the parts previously assigned
mostly to men.For instance, high-heeled shoes, now considered feminine
throughout much of the world, were initially designed for upper-class men to
use when hunting on horseback. As women began wearing high heels, male
heels slowly became shorter and flatter as female heels grew taller and thinner.
Over time, the perception of the high heel gradually became seen as feminine.
There is nothing intrinsically feminine about the high heel. Social norms have
made it so.

2. Pink for a girl and blue for a boy?

In many countries, pink is seen as a suitable color for a girl to wear, while boys
are dressed in blue.However, infants were dressed in white until colored
B.Ed. Semester-IV 8 Paper-XIX

garments for babies were introduced in the middle of the 19th

century.The following quote comes from a trade publication called Earnshaw’s
Infants’ Department, published in 1918:“The generally accepted rule is pink
for the boys and blue for the girls. The reason is that pink, being a more
decided and stronger color, is more suitable for the boy, while blue, which is
more delicate and dainty, is prettier for the girl.”Move forward 100 years and it
is rare to find a baby boy dressed in pink in many countries.
1.4 CULTURAL CONSTRUCT OF GENDER:
A) Cultural Construct: A Cultural construct means the idea that the
characteristics people attribute to such social categories as gender, illness,
death, status of women, and status of men is culturally defined. Cultural
construct is anything that is determined arbitrarily by one’s cultural
background, rather than something universally rooted in biology or some
other unyielding aspect of human nature.
B) Examples of Cultural Construct:
1. Sexual reproduction is biological in origin. On the other hand, the
gendered idea that male babies have blue-colored toys and nursery decoration, but
female babies have pink-colored toys and nursery decoration, is a cultural
construct.
2. The inevitability of death and human mortality is biological in origin. The
ideas that you wear black to the funeral in the west (but white to the funeral in
Japan) are cultural constructs.
3. The ability to see color is biological in origin, related to the rods and cones
of the eye. On the other hand, the idea that we categorize colors by hue in one
language, or by reflectivity in another, or by intensity of shade in another
language, is a human construct. (Likewise, the idea that “blue” is one color, and
“green” is another, as opposed to so-called “grue” languages like Welsh in which
blue and green share one word for the same color , is a cultural construct. Colors
are real, but the way we divide them up and label them is artificial.)
4. Math is abstract but real. However, the use of a Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3,
4) versus Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV) is a cultural construct.
5. It’s a cultural construct that people drive on the right side of the road in
America, but the left side of the road in Britain.
6. It’s a cultural construct that women wear skirts and men don’t in America
(but that men do wear skirts called “kilts” in Scotland).
B.Ed. Semester-IV 9 Paper-XIX

The above given are conventions, rules, laws, ideas, or expectations and
stereotypes are cultural constructs as these are constructed in different cultures.
C) Gender: A cultural Construct
Gender is a cultural construction which creates an environment where an
adolescent's performance in high school is related to their life goals and
expectations. Because most young women know they want to be mothers and
wives, the choice of professions and future goals can be inherently flawed by the
gender constraints. Because a girl may want to be a mother later, her academics in
high school can create clear gender differences because "higher occupational
expectations, educational expectations, and academic grades were more strongly
associated with the expected age of parenthood for girls than for boys".
To understand Gender as a cultural construct, Lets short with three terms:
Sex, gender and sexuality. Sex is takes to refer primarily to biological
characteristics. In that sense, human beings everywhere have only two sexes ,
except for a few rarely occurring genetic or harmonal anomalies, a few of which
are clearly understood, a few of whom are not. However, every culture also
contains a set of norms, describing the “Proper” use of sexual physiology . For
example” who constitute proper sexual partners, when sexual activity should take
place and what clothing is “proper” for which biological sex. From this point of
view, we can discuss culturally constructed Gender.
Cultural construct of Gender is taken to refer to a culturally based complex
of norms, values and behavior that a particular culture assigns to one biological
sex or the other and whereas sexuality is considered a more individualized
concept which refer to the ways in which ;individualized concept which refer to
the ways in which individuals structure their sexual and gender performances,
individualized concept which refer to the ways in which individuals structure their
sexual and gender performances , and the partners towards whom they direct their
behavior and emotional attachments.
1. Intersexuality:
To understand the cultural construct of gender, easily. Let’s first consider
the case of intersexuality, a variety of genetic and hormonal anomalies which
occasionally occursi.e. , when biological distinction of a child into male or female
is not clear at the birth of a child. In India, these so called transgenders, are not
allowed to live in the family. They are made to live in and broughtup by the
group transgenders . They are not allowed to marry masculine and feminine
gender.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 10 Paper-XIX

In Kenya, there are people called pokots, they call these intersexed
individuals as an extremely unfortunate occurrence and kill these at the time of
birth and even if they are allowed to survive, they are made to live as
marginalized people. Most segments of middle class, U.S. culture tend to see such
people as “mistakes of nature” and seek to correct the “error”. Such people adopt
the surgical treatment for being categorized into masculine or feminine category .
This is done so as to transform such anomalies individuals fit for the society and
culture. On the whole, it can be said that the culturally accepted gender is
masculine and feminine.

2. Bipolar Construct:
Now, we will discuss the culturally accepted genders i.e. girls and boys or
women and men or masculine or feminine. Let us take the example of pre-
adolescent boys who avoid some activities or modes of behavior because they are
said to be “girlish”. Or when pre-adolescent girls are snubbed for engaging in
outdoor activities said to be “Boyish” , we are witnessing something a culture’s
division of labour. House hold domain is described as feminine space and is
associated with motherhood, childcare and wife roles .Men who are good
household managers and parents are often thought to be disturbingly feminine.
Women who are good income earners or highly trained professionals are
considered disturbingly masculine.
Let us consider the case of India, it is considered customary to perform
certain tasks by women only like singing songs on marriages, and wearing dresses
specifically prescribed for women, child nurturing and motherhood role. Girls are
taught to speak in a low tone voice and come home before the sunset. Usually
there are no such restrictions on boys. Let’s take example of a particular dress
called as ‘salwar’. It is traditional dress for women in India where as it is
traditional dress for men in Pakistan.
We can observe that every culture makes some distinction between the
positions, roles and responsibilities of women and men. So it can be generalized
that Gender is culturally constructed.

1.5 Psychological Construct of Gender:-

Gender is considered to be an important factor for understanding for many
behavior related aspects. In psychology, ‘Gender’ is generally used without much
B.Ed. Semester-IV 11 Paper-XIX

of its social and conceptual importance . Generally, psychologists use gender in

empirical research in different ways:-
(a) To signify gender differences within sex variability
(b) Gender related power relations that structure many social institutions
and interaction.
A) Psychological Aspects of Gender
According to the ‘ Sex differences approach’, the psychologists mainly
consider the differences in the behavior, personality, ability and the performances
of the two sexes with a presumption that these differences arise from the pre-
existing ‘essential’ differences between males and females.
The psychologists have an approach that not only will there be differences
in key traits but also in the non-overlapping distribution like ejaculation,
pregnancy, childbirth and lactation. Psychologists have tried hard to account in
for such wide ranging biological differences.
However, some psychologists have noted that while focusing on sex
differences, we ignore the sex differences within the sex. And therefore, there are
many exaggerations about sex differences which have been reinforced in the mind
of people. For example, it has been observed that the ‘Mathematics Performance’
is usually a gendered i.e. boys are considered to perform better as compared to the
girls. And mainly, its related to the rigid idea of the person about mathematical
ability of their children.
Gender not only operates on the sex differences but also on the SOCIAL
CONTRUCT. Society has set many norms which are different for both the
genders.
Hence, from the above mentioned aspects, we can conclude that the
biological, social, cultural and psychological constructs affect the gender. Other
aspects of gender related to psychology are the personality differences, the
identity crisis which both of the gender face.
1.6 Suggested Questions
1 Define Gender. Explain the concept of Gender.
2 Write the meanings of the terms “Sex” and “Gender”. Differentiate between
these.
3 What is a social construct? Explain gender as a social construct giving its
definitions also.
4 How sex category becomes gender category in society?
B.Ed. Semester-IV 12 Paper-XIX

5 Justify gender as a social construct highlighting the changes taking place in it

across various societies and with time.
6 What is a cultural construct? Give Examples.
7 Explain Gender as a cultural construct.

1.7 Suggested Readings

1. Goyal, S. (2017). Gender, School and Society. Twentyfirst Century Publications,
Patiala.
2. www.google.com/search?q=gender+meaning&rlz=1C1CHBD_enIN905IN905&oq
=Gender+me&aqs=chrome.0.0l2j69i57j0l5.10557j1j15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UT
F-8
3. https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1CHBD_enIN905IN905&sxsrf=
ALeKk03KnsZBTNrAEQ_dcRyooWJeEoBChw%3A1598373397932&ei=FT5FX
8bIOLLfz7sPuoOogAc&q=gender+concepts+and+terminology&oq=gender+conce
pt&gs_lcp=CgZwc3ktYWIQARgEMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggA
MgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADoHCAAQsAMQQzoJCCMQJxBGEPkBOgQIIxA
nOgQIABBDOgUIABCxAzoHCC4QJxCTAjoFCAAQkQI6CAgAELEDEJECUJ
CaB1jguwdgjfIHaAJwAHgAgAHzAogBohaSAQgwLjEwLjMuMZgBAKABAao
BB2d3cy13aXrAAQE&sclient=psy-ab
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B.Ed. Semester-IV Paper-XIX

Gender, School and Society

Lesson no. 1.2

Gender Role and Perception: Masculinity and femininity, feminism and Patriarchy

Structure
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Concept of Gender Role and Perception
2.3 Patriarchy
2.4 Important Characteristics of a Patriarchal System
2.5 Indian Patriarchal Traditions Masculinity
2.6 Concept of Masculinity (M) and Femininity (F)
2.7 Male Gender Roles Masculinity
2.8 Harmful Effects of Rigid Male Gender Roles
2.9 Different Types of Feminism
2.10 History and Theory of Feminism
2.11 Suggested Questions
2.12 Suggested Readings

2.1 Objectives
After going through this lesson you will be able to know
1. The concept of gender role and perception.
2. The concept of Patriarchy
3. Important characteristics of a Patriarchal System
4. Indian Patriarchal Traditions
5. Concept of Masculinity (M) and Femininity (F)
6. Male gender roles Masculinity
7. Harmful effects of rigid male gender roles
8. Different types of Feminism
9. The history and theory of Feminism
10. The definitions of Gender Bias
11. The meaning of Gender stereotypes
12. The most Common Gender Stereotypes
B.Ed. Semester-IV 14 Paper-XIX

In common parlance, the terms gender and sex are often used interchangeably;
however, they are distinct concepts. Whereas, sex of individuals is largely determined by
biology, Gender is not determined biologically, as a result of sexual characteristics of
either women or men, but is constructed socially and comprises the roles, rights, and
obligations that attach to them on the basis of their sex. Gender issues focus on women
and on the relationship between men and women, their roles, access to and control over
resources, division of labour, interests and needs.
2.2 Concept of Gender role and perception.
1. According toTraditional concept of Gender

“the state of being male or female (typically used with reference to social and cultural
differences rather than biological ones).”
2. As in Merriam-Webster Dictionary-
a subclass within a grammatical class (as noun, pronoun, adjective, or verb) of a
language that is partly arbitrary but also partly based on distinguishable
characteristics (as shape, social rank, manner of existence, or sex) and that
determines agreement with and selection of other words or grammatical forms

3. According to Unger (1979) “The term gender may be used to describe those non-
physiological components of sex that are culturally regarded as appropriate to
males and females”. Gender in its psychological sense is a multi-component
construct, its reflections being palpable on various traits, roles and attitudes.
4. Kishor (2006) identifies three important aspects of gender namely:
a) Gender tends not be value neutral.
The roles, rights, and obligations assigned to each sex are not just different, but
also unequal with male roles and rights generally being valued more highly than
female roles and rights.
b) Gender involves differences in power, both power to and power over.
(i) The concept of power to encompasses legal and informal rights, access to
resources, and pursuit of knowledge and personal goals, and cuts across
most domains of human functioning, including familial, cultural, and
institutional domains.
(ii) Power over refers to control over societal and household resources and
decisions, cultural and religious ideology, and one's own and others'
bodies. Importantly, men tend to have greater power than women, and, in
some domains, even have power over women.
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c) Gender is not static or immutable.

Being socially constructed, gender roles, rights, and expectations can change over
time and across geographical space as societal needs, opportunities, and customs
change.
5. Bravo-Baumann (2000) defined gender as ‘the relations between men and
women, both perceptual and material. It is a central organizing principle of
societies, and often governs the processes of production and reproduction,
consumption and distribution’. Despite this definition, gender is often
misunderstood as being the promotion of women only .Gender relations affect
household security, family well-being, planning, production and many other
aspects of life
Gender pervades our lives in every possible way. It is manifested in how we act, behave,
what clothes we wear and the norms and values that we emulate. Gender gets manifested
through different kinds of controls on women – on their production, reproduction,
sexuality and mobility. Gender is embedded within other social stratifies that mediate
different outcomes for men and women. Women’s position in the entertainment and
leisure all are implicated in the social construction of masculine and feminine sexuality.
Gender inequality reflects and serves to maintain subordination. Gender intersects class
and caste as well as ethnicity and tribe in significant ways. In understanding gender we
need to see its relation with each of these since they shape each other.
2.3 Patriarchy
A patriarchal social system can be defined as a system where men are in authority over
women in all aspects of society. A patriarchal system involves men being in authority over
women.
Definitions of Patriarchy
 a fam il y, group , or govern m ent contr ol led b y a m an or a group of
m en
 a soc i al s ys t em i n whi ch f am il y m em b ers are rel at ed t o ea ch ot her
t hrough t hei r fat hers
 A system of society or government in which men hold the power and women are
largely excluded from it. It is a system of society or government in which the
father or eldest male is head of the family and descent is reckoned through the
male line.
 Social organization marked by the supremacy of the father in the clan or
family, the legal dependence of wives and children, and the reckoning of
B.Ed. Semester-IV 16 Paper-XIX

descent and inheritance in the male line; broadly : control by men of a

disproportionately large share of power.
2.4 Characteristics of a Patriarchal System
Some characteristics of a patriarchal system include:
 Male Dominance: In a patriarchal system, men make all decisions in both society
and in their family unit, hold all positions of power and authority, and are
considered superior.
 Male Identification: Men are concerned with identification that includes qualities
of control, strength, forcefulness, rationality, strong work ethic, and
competitiveness. Each of these qualities contribute to male identification in a
patriarchal system.
 Male Centeredness: In a patriarchal system, the center of activity and
progression is on men and what they do to move the society forward. In any
patriarchal system, men will be the focus and developer of all events and
inventions, men will be the heroes in all situations, and men will be the center of
social engagement, fun, and entertainment.
 Obsession with Control: Men living in a patriarchal system or society must be in
control at all times. They have a desire to control all social and family situations
and must make all decisions regarding finances and education.
2. 5 India's Patriarchal Traditions
1.Dowry Traditions
Much of the discrimination against women arises from India's dowry tradition, where the
bride's family gives the groom's family money and/or gifts. Dowries were made illegal in
India in 1961, however the law is almost impossible to enforce, and the practice persists
for most marriages. Unfortunately, the iniquitous dowry system has even spread to
communities who traditionally have not practiced it, because dowry is sometimes used as
a means to climb the social ladder, to achieve economic security, and to accumulate
material wealth. The model used to calculate the dowry takes the bridegroom's education
and future earning potential into account while the bride's education and earning potential
are only relevant to her societal role of being a better wife and mother. The bridegroom's
demand for a dowry can easily exceed the annual salary of a typical Indian family, and
consequently be economically disastrous especially in families with more than one or two
daughters
2. Women as a Liability
The Indian constitution grants women equal rights to men, but strong patriarchal
traditions persist in many different societal parts, with women's lives shaped by customs
B.Ed. Semester-IV 17 Paper-XIX

that are centuries old. Hence, in these strata daughters are often regarded as a liability,
and conditioned to believe that they are inferior and subordinate to men, whereas sons
might be idolized and celebrated

There are a couple of reasons, why men might be regarded an asset for a family:
 Considered capable of earning money
 Carry on the family line
 Able to provide for their aging parents
 Bring a wife (and with this a capable domestic helper) into the family
 Play an important role in death rituals in Hindu religion, which ensure, that the
soul is released from the body and can go to heaven.
On the other hand, there are a couple of reasons why women might be regarded more of a
liability for a family:
 Not considered capable of earning money
 Seen as economically and emotionally dependent on men
 While they help with domestic duties during childhood and adolescence, they go
to live with their husband's family after marriage, which means less help in the
household of their originating family, and most importantly loss of money due to
the dowry tradition.
This might explain why the birth of a daughter may not always be perceived as equally
blissful as the birth of a son, and why “May you be blessed with a hundred sons” is a
common Hindu wedding blessing.
3. Discrimination against Women
It should be noted that in a vast country like India - spanning 3.29 million sq. km, where
cultural backgrounds, religions and traditions vary widely - the extend of discrimination
against women also varies from one societal stratum to another and from state to state -
some areas in India being historically more inclined to gender bias than others. There are
even communities in India, such as the Nairs of Kerala, certain Maratha clans, and
Bengali families, which exhibit matriarchal tendencies, with the head of the family being
the oldest woman rather than the oldest man. However, many Indian women face
discrimination throughout all stages of their life, beginning at (or even before) birth,
continuing as an infant, child, adolescent and adult. The stages can be divided in
following sections:
 Before Birth / As an Infant
 As a Child
 After Marriage
B.Ed. Semester-IV 18 Paper-XIX

 As a Widow
4. Discrimination against Women: Before Birth / As an Infant
India is one of the few countries where males outnumber females; the sex ratio at birth
(SRB) – which shows the number of boys born to every 100 girls - is usually consistent
in human populations, where about 105 males are born to every 100 females.There are
significant imbalances in the male/female population in India where the SRB is 113;
there are also huge local differences from Northern / Western regions such as Punjab or
Delhi, where the sex ratio is as high as 125, to Southern / Eastern India e.g. Kerala and
Andhra Pradesh, where sex ratios are around 105. Though “prenatal sex discrimination”
was legally banned in 1996, the law is nearly impossible to enforce and is not even
familiar to all Indian families. Hence, the preference for a male child persists, quite often
out of mere practical, financial concerns, because the parents might not be able to afford
the marriage dowry for (another) daughter. This leads to some of the most gruesome and
desperate acts when it comes to gender discrimination:
 Selective abortions
 Murdering of female babies
 Abandonment of female babies
Prenatal tests to determine the sex of the fetus were criminalized by Indian law in 1994,
but the above mentioned imbalances in the sex ratio at birth, clearly point to gender
selective abortions. While abortion is officially illegal in India there are some exceptions
to this rule such as the failure of contraceptive device used by a couple; if the woman was
raped; or if the child would suffer from severe disabilities. In total 11 million abortions
take place annually and around 20,000 women die every year due to abortion related
complications.
5. Discrimination against Women: As a Child
Nutrition and Health
As a child, girls are often treated differently from male children in terms of nutrition and
health care; where limited food or financial resources are available, the insufficient
means are prone to be allocated unevenly in favour of the male offspring.
This imbalance results in insufficient care afforded to girls and women, and is the first
major reason for the high levels of child malnutrition. This nutritional deprivation has
two harmful consequences for women:
1. They never reach their full growth potential
2.Anaemia Both consequences are risk factors in pregnancy, complicating childbearing
and resulting in maternal and infant deaths, as well as low birth weight infants.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 19 Paper-XIX

6. Education
India's constitution guarantees free primary school education for both girls and boys up to
age 14. This has been repeatedly reconfirmed, but primary education in India is not
universal, and often times not seen as really necessary for girls. Social sector programmes
e.g. “Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan” (Education for Everyone) are promoting girls' education to
equalize educational opportunities and eliminate gender disparities, but these initiatives
will take time to unfold their whole effect.
Their parents might consider it more important, that they learn domestic chores, as they
will need to perform them for their future husbands and in-laws. Another disincentive for
sending daughters to school is a concern for the protection of their virginity. When
schools are located at a distance, when teachers are male, and when girls are expected to
study along with boys, parents are often unwilling to expose their daughters to the
potential assault on their virginity, that would ultimately result in an insult to the girl's
family's honor.
This results in one of the lowest female literacy rates in the world.

 Literacy Rate for Women: 54%

 Literacy Rate for Men: 76%
As a comparison, female literacy per 2009: Pakistan: 60%, Peru: 89%, Indonesia: 93%.
Mothers' illiteracy and lack of schooling directly disadvantage their young children. Low
schooling translates into poor quality of care for children, consequently in higher infant
and child mortality and malnutrition, because mothers with little education are less likely
to adopt appropriate health-promoting behaviors, such as having young children
immunized.
7. Child Marriages
The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006 bans marriage below age 18 for girls and age
21 for boys, but some 80 % of Indians live in villages where family, caste and community
pressures are more effective than any legislature. According to UNICEF's "State of the
World's Children 2009" report, 47% of India's women aged 20–24 were married before
the legal age of 18, with 56% in rural areas. The report also showed that 40% of the
world's child marriages occur in India.
The consequences
Girls between 15 and 19 are twice as likely to die of pregnancy-related reasons as girls
between 20 and 24. Girls married off as children sometimes stay in their parents' house
until puberty, but it is just as common, that they move in with their husband and in-laws
B.Ed. Semester-IV 20 Paper-XIX

right after marriage. In that case, many child wives are inclined to experience domestic
violence, marital rape, deprivation of food, and lack of access to information, healthcare,
and education. Thus, the vicious cycle of illiteracy and abuse is likely to be continued and
passed on to their own daughters.

8. Discrimination against Women: After Marriage

There is mainly a bias towards men and their superiority in marital relationships: while
women ought to be respected, protected and kept happy by their husbands – their
happiness being vital for the prosperity, peace and happiness of the whole family – they
should also be kept under constant vigilance, since they cannot be completely trusted or
left to themselves. Whereas as a child a girl is supposed to remain in the custody and care
of her parents, after marriage she becomes the property and responsibility of her husband,
who is supposed to take care of her and keep her in his custody.
Under the existing cultural and social ethos of India a married girl / woman is no longer
considered to be part of the family of her birth, instead she has become part of the family
of the groom. Hence, after marriage the woman leaves her parental home and lives with
her husband's family, where she is required to assume all household labour and domestic
responsibilities.

In certain parts of Indian society, women are conditioned from birth to be subservient not
only to their future husbands, but also to the females in their husband's family especially,
their mother-in-law. Accordingly, the surrounding society mandates a woman's obedience
to her husband and her in-laws. Any disobedience would bring disgrace to both, the wife
herself and her originating family, and might lead to the woman being ostracized and
neglected by her very own family and in her own home.

There is no cultural or religious tradition behind one of the most ghastly incidents of
female oppression, but the prevalence of the dowry tradition has supposedly lead to
“Bride Burning” (or other form of murdering) of the newly-wed wife by the husband and
his family, who would claim, that she died in a domestic accident, so that the widowed
husband would be free to marry again and collect another dowry.
Indian law demands a formal criminal investigation when a newly married woman dies
within the home within 7 years of marriage. According to Indian National Crime Record
Bureau, there were 8,239 dowry death cases, 1,285 cases of attempted dowry deaths, and
another 4,890 cases with pending investigations in 2009. The punishment for dowry
deaths is a term of 7 years, which may extend to life imprisonment. Indian law clearly
B.Ed. Semester-IV 21 Paper-XIX

distinguishes the offence of dowry deaths from the offence of murder, for which a death
sentence might be declared.
9. Discrimination against Women: As a Widow
Indian government has enacted numerous laws to protect widow's rights, including
prohibitions against traditional practices for which India has been discredited, such as the
burning of widows (Sati). Whereas in India's contemporary culture, especially in the
modern urban middle-class, these societal norms have given way to a more righteous
conduct, the enforcement of the law continues to be challenging, where there are
regional, religious or caste variants of family law, which tend to escape government
jurisdiction. Hence, a widow is still seen as a liability in some part of the Indian society,
which might result in her being abandoned by her in-laws. As her originating family is
often unable or unwilling to take her back as well, she might be left on her own, without
any education, skills, or financial assistance. Instead, she is subjected to many
restrictions, and might be required to shave her head permanently, or to wear white
clothes for the rest of her life; thus, stigmatized, she is not allowed to enter in any
celebration e.g. weddings, because her presence is considered to be inauspicious.
Moreover, a widow might face trouble securing her property rights after her husbands
death, nor be allowed to remarry, disregarding at what age she became a widow. As the
described discrimination against widows is likely to occur in the same societal
surroundings as the above mentioned child marriages, this might lead to child or teenage
widows, who are bound to be isolated and ostracized for the rest of their lives.

10. Discrimination against Women: For Inheritance

While in the educated, urban middle class women's rights continue to improve, there
remains a strong bias against gender equality in those societal parts of India, where
patriarchal traditions prevail. Consequently, in these strata any inheritance of a deceased
husband or father would be passed down to the oldest son, while his wife or daughters
would not receive any financial benefit. There are laws in place to ensure legal protection
for women's right to inheritance, but the enforcement of the law is challenging, when the
woman is refused her right by the family, and when she is not confident or educated
enough to claim her right
Sustainable and long-term development is not possible without the participation and
empowerment of women, only if they participate in the economic and societal
development, the full potential of a society of India’s society will be unfolded.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 22 Paper-XIX

In modern developed culture and society, the idea of patriarchy is not as accepted or
practiced as it once was decades ago. e.g. In today's more progressive American society,
women work in executive positions, maintain leadership roles in organizations, and are
often decision-makers in their households and communities. In the past, men were more
often the established gender of authority and exhibited control in all situations.
2.6 Concept of Masculinity (M) and Femininity (F)

Masculinity however was traditionally defined as what men usually are / do and
femininity as what women usually are/ do.
The early conceptualization of gender role identity was based on two assumptions:
(1) masculinity for men and femininity for women is normative, and
(2) femininity and masculinity are mutually exclusive.
According to Constantinople (1973) masculinity and femininity are not contrary, but
co-existent. This was an epochal concept so far as it was the first step to recognize the
complexity of psychological variations in gender construct.

Gender role
identity has two components, namely Masculinity (M) and Femininity (F).
Age, race, and social class further define individuals’ roles, which influence how men
and women interact and the attitudes and behaviors expected of each. Masculine and
feminine roles are not opposite ends of the same continuum but are instead two separate
dimensions. A person may be described as “masculine,” as “feminine,” as
“androgynous,” i.e., having characteristics of both, or as “undifferentiated,” that are,
having neither strong masculine nor strong feminine characteristics. These include
prescriptions for ways to act (be tough, stay in control, etc), attitudes to hold (work is
very important, women should be primary caregivers to children, etc), and ways to look
(wear pants and suits, wear hair short, etc). It also includes prescriptions for ways not to
act (don’t cry, don’t be a wimp, etc.) attitudes not to hold (want to be a stay-at-home dad,
it’s OK for my wife to earn more money than me, etc.) and ways not to present oneself
(don’t wear a dress, don’t have long hair, etc).
Similar to sex differences, there are many debates about the nature and nurture of gender
roles. Some believe that these attitudes and behaviors naturally flow from biological sex
and personality traits, whereas others see them as complete cultural constructions.
Androgyny
People who express masculine and feminine traits equally are sometimes called
androgynous. Among androgynous people, neither masculine nor feminine traits dominate.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 23 Paper-XIX

People who are androgynous are believed to be more effective because they can perform
both the “instrumental,” directive, or masculine roles and the “expressive,” nurturing, or
feminine roles (Powell and Butterfield, 1989).

2.7 Male Gender Roles Masculatinity

"Real men don't cry, only wimps(weak) do!"
"Kya ladkiyon ki tarah sharma rahe ho!"
Males have all been subjected to such comments since childhood. Every time
expectations are more from them. What are they going to be, how are we going to
dress, what hobbies are we going to take up, what attitudes are they going to have,
what behaviours are they going to adopt are messages that they keep absorbing from
the social environment around them.
These social do's and don'ts for men are known as male 'gender' or 'social' roles or
'social masculinity roles'. The crucial ones decide whether a man has the social right
to call himself a man.
Here is a list of expectations from a person because he happens to be a man:
1. Men are expected to be strong, aggressive, tall, handsome, bold,
courageous, rough, tough, emotionless, insensitive, fearless and practical.
They should not be soft, submissive or weak.
2. They are not supposed to have weaknesses or vulnerabilities. They must
not show feelings as these would make them appear weak or vulnerable.
3. They should always be prepared to fight their way. They should never
retreat from a physical fight. Others should fear them. They should physically
defend their family and work hard to earn to support it. They should choose
careers considered 'manly' --- engineers, doctors, military, managers, etc.
4. A real man is expected to have hobbies such as smoking, drinking, fast
driving, chasing girls, and playing outdoor sports like cricket, football, etc.
They should not have 'girlie' hobbies like cooking, decorating, sewing (silai-
kadhai), dancing, etc.
5. Some of the other messages that male get are that real men:
- Don't cry
- Don't feel pain
- Are not shy
These messages are transmitted to them explicitly and implicitly, from time to
time, especially when they are growing up.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 24 Paper-XIX

2.8 Harmful Effects of the Pressure to Appear Strong and Suppress

Emotions
"Mard ko dard nahin hota" (a real man does not feel pain) ~ a dialogue from a
Hindi Movie
Under continuous pressure to appear strong, a boy learns that it is not
acceptable to let other people know of his weaknesses and vulnerabilities. He is
unable to accept defeat or rejection. For example, saying 'sorry' is difficult for
most men.
1. Boys pretend that they are born 'perfect', with all the qualities required to fulfill the
social masculinity roles. Their masculinity roles give them huge egos. This pressure
to be always strong, perfect and flawless makes a boy keep all his internal issues to
himself, which makes life extremely stressful.
2. This also means that for most of his 'real' problems, they cannot seek guidance or
help, and has to find his own way, through trial and error.
3. Thus boys make many mistakes in their youth, about which they repent later on.
These mistakes could be avoided if only they could just talk to someone.
4. Men are also human beings, with feelings, and they need to cry and share their
inner pain with people they consider close. They need to love and be loved.
5. Social masculinity roles make no concessions for emotions. The pressure to
suppress emotions is a key social mechanism of male oppression.
6. However, emotions play an important part in our lives. They are our only contact
with our inner voice. When boys suppress emotions, they lose touch with their inner
voice, the voice of our true nature, needs and desires. Consequently, men end up not
knowing what they really need deep down. Therefore, true happiness often evades
them.
7. From an early age, men learn to distrust their feelings, their inner voice. They
become scared of their inner feelings and desires, as these always seem to get them
into trouble and invite people's wrath or ridicule. For instance, when they get hurt and
cry, someone may tell them it is not proper for a boy to cry. Or when they feel scared,
they may be told that a boy should never feel scared. Or that he should not dance or
wear pink or be seen with dolls.
8. Such injunctions affect a boy's psyche, and he starts seeing these acts as
unbecoming. He hates the feelings that prompt him to do these things. Slowly he
learns to use only his brain, and do only what he is trained to do: like a dog.
9. Due to prolonged suppression of feelings, most men lose the ability to
identify their own emotions and express them. This is a frightening situation.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 25 Paper-XIX

Because they suppress their emotions so fiercely, men become insensitive and
hardened. This results in their inability to fulfil the emotional needs of people they
have relationships with --- whether as sons, brothers, friends, lovers or husbands.
They end up not caring for other people's feelings.
10. Men sacrifice a lot of their real self to become what the society wants them
to be. But they cannot suppress all feelings and needs forever, as that causes deep
pain within.
11. When men are unable to suppress a particular feeling, they learn to lead
double lives, by expressing those feelings secretly, but on the outside maintaining
a 'clean' image. This is extremely stressful.
12. Modern societies propagate male emotionality as an unmanly quality. It
encourages men to be unemotional, logical and practical, as if they are computers.
However, in most traditional societies, male emotions were celebrated as
masculine, often through prose and poetry and men were encouraged to be
emotional. Then men become great poets and philosophers.
Today men have become very distanced from their emotions. They have lost
the capacity to feel. They don't use the 'emotional' side of their brain much. Some
people claim that men are naturally not emotional. But this is not true. Men are
trained to become emotionless, so that society can continue to oppress them. It is
illogical to think that nature would deprive men of emotions and feelings, which
are an important source of connection with their true nature.

How do these Roles or Exclusive Masculinity harm Men?

"Life (for boys) is not about learning how to be, it is about learning how not to be,
what we are" ~ Neale Donald Walsch
The gender (Masculinity) of men act as a series of unending pressures on them.
They force men to live, think and behave in strict predetermined ways. There is
no escape from these pressures. Non-compliance has severe consequences.
Every man has qualities that the society does not deem fit for men. Survival
instinct prompts men to suppress these qualities, or fulfil them secretly, with
guilt/shame.
What would a man do if he ise cleaning utensils at home, and suddenly his
friends turn up? Won't they immediately wipe your hands and try to conceal the
fact that he was cleaning utensils? Otherwise others will be critical saying you're
doing a woman's thing.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 26 Paper-XIX

Case study
Naveen has aptitude for music. With proper training and
encouragement, he can become a good singer or musician. There is
a feminine boy in his class named Anil, who is teased by everyone
as ladki, including by Naveen himself.
As Naveen passed on to the 11th class, he was looking forward
to take music as a subsidiary subject. The only boy who had joined
the music class till now was Anil. The others teased Anil by saying
that he had opted for a 'girlie' subject. Naveen is now afraid to join
the music class because he does not want to be compared to Anil.
Therefore, he takes up electronics, even if his interest lies in music.

In most middle class Indian families, boys cannot work on their talent and
creativity, as they are required to earn as soon as they finish their studies. They
cannot even opt for a subject of their choice as they are pressurized to select those
subjects perceived to offer maximum security and financial prospects. Science is
the subject for boys, followed by Commerce, while Arts is not considered fit for
them.
The hobbies that boys are supposed to pursue also have a negative effect on
their lives. Fast driving, smoking, drinking, fighting, eve teasing can harm their
health and safety. But boys do these so that they can be called 'men'.
Gender roles restrict the fluidity in a boy's behaviour by restricting his ability to
act according to the situation. Gender roles have fixed in advance what is
expected of him in all situations.
Men have been made so insecure about their (social) masculinity by the society
that they will do anything propagated as 'what men do', and avoid anything
propagated as what men do not do, even if it goes against their nature.
Under the pressure of social masculinity roles, men suppress their basic nature.
Male roles require them to be what is often not possible without tampering with
nature.

2.9 Feminism
Feminism is support of equality for women and men. Feminism is theory that men and
women should be equal politically, economically and socially. This is the core of all
B.Ed. Semester-IV 27 Paper-XIX

feminism theories. Sometimes this definition is also referred to as "core feminism" or

"core feminist theory."
A) Basic Feminist Ideas
Both females and males who identify themselves as feminists agree on five basic
principles:
 Working to increase equality: Feminist thought links ideas to action, insisting
we should push for change toward gender equality and not just talk about it.
 Expanding human choice: Feminists believe that both men and women should
have the freedom to develop their human interests and talents, even if those
interests and talents conflict with the status quo. For example, if a woman wants
to be a mechanic, she should have the right and opportunity to do so.
 Eliminating gender stratification: Feminists oppose laws and cultural norms
that limit income, educational and job opportunities for women.
 Ending sexual violence and promoting sexual freedom: Feminists feel that
women should have control over their sexuality and reproduction.

B) Types of Feminism
There are four basic forms of feminism: liberal, social and radical and cultural feminism.
1. Liberal feminism is rooted in classic liberal thought and believes that
individuals should be free to develop their own talents and pursue their
own interests.
This approach sees gender inequalities as rooted in the attitudes of our social and
cultural institutions. Liberal feminists do not see women's equality as requiring a
reorganization of society, but they do seek to expand the rights and opportunities of
women.
They focus mainly on protecting equal opportunities for women through legislation.
Passage of the Equal Rights Amendment in 1972 was a big step forward for liberal
feminist agenda.
2. Socialist feminism evolved from the ideas of Karl Marx, who blamed
capitalism for promoting patriarchy by concentrating power in the hands
of a small number of men.
Socialist feminists believe that the traditional family is based upon a capitalist system,
where women stay home and men work. It is the main source of women's inequality, this
system and traditional family can only be replaced by a socialist revolution.
3. Radical feminism believe that men not only benefit from the exploitation
of women but are also responsible for it as well.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 28 Paper-XIX

4. Cultural Feminism According to this theory there are fundamental

personality differences between men and women, and that women's
differences are special and should be celebrated. This theory of feminism
supports the notion that there are biological differences between men and
women. For example, "women are kinder and more gentle then men,"
leading to the mentality that if women ruled the world there would be no
wars.
2.10 HISTORY AND THEORY OF FEMINISM
The term feminism can be used to describe a political, cultural or economic movement
aimed at establishing equal rights and legal protection for women. Feminism involves
political and sociological theories and philosophies concerned with issues of gender
difference, as well as a movement that advocates gender equality for women and
campaigns for women's rights and interests. Although the terms "feminism" and
"feminist" did not gain widespread use until the 1970s, they were already being used in
the public parlance much earlier; for instance, Katherine Hepburn speaks of the "feminist
movement" in the 1942 film Woman of the Year.
According to Maggie Humm and Rebecca Walker, the history of feminism can be
divided into three waves. The first feminist wave was in the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, the second was in the 1960s and 1970s, and the third extends from
the 1990s to the present. Feminist theory emerged from these feminist movements. It is
manifest in a variety of disciplines such as feminist geography, feminist history and
feminist literary criticism.
Feminism has altered predominant perspectives in a wide range of areas within Western
society, ranging from culture to law. Feminist activists have campaigned for women's
legal rights (rights of contract, property rights, voting rights); for women's right to bodily
integrity and autonomy, for abortion rights, and for reproductive rights (including access
to contraception and quality prenatal care); for protection of women and girls from
domestic violence, sexual harassment and rape;for workplace rights, including maternity
leave and equal pay; against misogyny; and against other forms of gender-specific
discrimination against women.
During much of its history, most feminist movements and theories had leaders who were
predominantly middle-class white women from Western Europe and North America.
However, at least since Sojourner Truth's 1851 speech to American feminists, women of
other races have proposed alternative feminisms.
Feminists and scholars have divided the movement's history into three "waves". The first
wave refers mainly to women's suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth
B.Ed. Semester-IV 29 Paper-XIX

centuries (mainly concerned with women's right to vote). The second wave refers to the
ideas and actions associated with the women's liberation movement beginning in the
1960s (which campaigned for legal and social rights for women). The third wave refers to
a continuation of, and a reaction to the perceived failures of, second-wave feminism,
beginning in the 1990s.
A) First Wave
First-wave feminism refers to an extended period of feminist activity during the
nineteenth century and early twentieth century in the United Kingdom and the United
States. Originally it focused on the promotion of equal contract and property rights for
women and the opposition to chattel marriage and ownership of married women (and
their children) by their husbands. However, by the end of the nineteenth century, activism
focused primarily on gaining political power, particularly the right of women's suffrage.
Yet, feminists such as Voltairine de Cleyre and Margaret Sanger were still active in
campaigning for women's sexual, reproductive, and economic rights at this time. In 1854,
Florence Nightingale established female nurses as adjuncts to the military.
In Britain the Suffragettes and, possibly more effectively, the Suffragists campaigned for
the women's vote. In 1918 the Representation of the People Act 1918 was passed
granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who owned houses. In 1928 this was
extended to all women over twenty-one. In the United States, leaders of this movement
included Lucretia Mott, Lucy Stone, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony, who
each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing women's right to vote;
B) Second Wave
Second-wave feminism refers to the period of activity in the early 1960s and lasting
through the late 1980s. The scholar Imelda Whelehan suggests that the second wave was
a continuation of the earlier phase of feminism involving the suffragettes in the UK and
USA. Second-wave feminism has continued to exist since that time and coexists with
what is termed third-wave feminism. The scholar Estelle Freedman compares first and
second-wave feminism saying that the first wave focused on rights such as suffrage,
whereas the second wave was largely concerned with other issues of equality, such as
ending discrimination.
The feminist activist and author Carol Hanisch coined the slogan "The Personal is
Political" which became synonymous with the second wave. Second-wave feminists saw
women's cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and encouraged women
to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politicized and as reflecting sexist
power structures.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 30 Paper-XIX

C) Third Wave
Third-wave feminism began in the early 1990s, arising as a response to perceived failures
of the second wave and also as a response to the backlash against initiatives and
movements created by the second wave.

2.11 Suggested Questions

1. Discuss the concept of gender?
2. Define the concept of Patriarchy?
3. What are the important characteristics of a Patriarchal System?
4. What were the Indian Patriarchal Traditions?
5. Describe the Concept of Masculinity (M) and Femininity (F)?
6. Discuss the male gender roles Masculinity?
7. What are the harmful effects of rigid male gender roles?
8. What are the different types of Feminism?
9. Explain the history and theory of Feminism?

2.12 Suggested Readings

1. Health Canada. Health Canada's Gender-based analysis policy. Ottawa:Minister
of Public Works, 2000 p.14
2. 2. Integrating Gender Perspectives in the work of WHO, WHO Gender Policy,
2002
3. https://workfamily.sas.upenn.edu/glossary/g/gender-definitions
4. Hesse-Biber, S. & Carger, G. L. (2000). Working women in America: Split
dreams. New York: Oxford University Press.
5. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). (2000) An IFAD
approach to: Gender mainstreaming: The experience of the Latin America and the
Caribbean division. Rome, Italy: U. Quintily S.p. A.
6. World Health Organization. (2002). Integrating gender perspectives into the work
of WHO. Switzerland: Author.
7. Borgatta, E.F. & Montgomery, R.J.V. (2000). Encyclopedia of Sociology (2nd
ed., Vol. 2). New York: Macmillan Reference, USA.
8. www.binaagarwal.com/popular_writings.htm
9. www.wikigender.org/index.php/Indian_Laws_relating_to_Women
_%26_Children
10. www.povertyactionlab.org/publication/raisingfemale-leaders 18 Poverty Action
Lab (MIT). 2006.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 31 Paper-XIX

11. www.povertyactionlab.org/evaluation/impact-womenpolicy-makers-public-
goods-india
12. www.skilldevelopment.gov.in/node/163 21 Khera, R. and N. Nandini. 2009.
13. http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/7832/; and the act’s website: nrega.nic.in
14. www.skilldevelopment.gov.in/node/163 21 Khera, R. and N. Nandini.
15. Women workers and perceptions of the National Rural Employment Guarantee
Act, India. Economic and Political Weekly. 44(43):49–57.
16. http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/7832/; and the act’s website: nrega.nic.in
17. planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/ welcome.html
18. Reports of working groups for the 12th Five Year Plan on Secondary and
Vocational Education (Ministry of Human Resource Development) and on Skill
Development and Training (Ministry of Labour and Employment).
http://planningcommission.nic.in
B.Ed. Semester-IV 32 Paper-XIX

B.Ed. Semester-IV Paper-XIX

Gender, School and Society

Lesson no. 1.3 Author:Dr. Manju Sood

GENDER AND SOCIETY: GENDER EQUITY, GENDER EQUALITY

&GENDER ROLES, GENDER BIASES AND GENDER STEREOTYPING

3.1 Objectives of the lesson

3.2 Concept of Gender Equity
3.3 Concept of Gender Equality
3.4 Concept of Gender Roles
3.5 Gender Biases
3.6 Gender Stereotyping
3.7 Suggested Questions
3.8 Suggested Readings

3.1 Objectives of the Lesson:

After going through the lesson, the students will be able to:
-Define Gender equity, Gender equality and gender roles
-Differentiate the concept of gender equity and gender equality
-Explain the meaning of gender biases
-Discuss Gender stereotypes and their kinds

3.2 Concept Of Gender Equity:-

A look back at history tells that men and women have been denied equal access to
rights and privileges. To bring the equality in men and women, we need to have equity.
Gender equity means fairness of treatment for women and men according to their
respective needs. It does not mean that both genders are to be treated in the same manner
rather their rights, roles,responsibilities and opportunities will not depend upon their birth
as male and female. The may be given equal or different treatment, but it should provide
them equivalency for the rights, benefits, responsibilities and opportunity. Gender equity
refers to correction in Gender biases by taking corrective measures for bringing improved
outcomes for all.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 33 Paper-XIX

A) Need For Gender Equity:-

There is no country where men and women are equal. According to World
Economic Forum Projects, more than 170 years are required to reach gender
equality worldwide. That means, gender equality will be achieved after next five
generations. It will not only impact our daughters, but sons too, because gender
equality has impact on all of us.
The concepts of equality and equity are often used interchangeably, but are quite
distinct concepts. International human rights treaties refer it to as “equality”, but in other
organisations, the term used is “Equity”. The use of term” Gender equity” needs much
carefulness. If it is used for the “Fair” treatment to women with reference to the
stereotype roles of women, it will further promote stereo type roles of women in society.
It will further lead to unequal gender relations and strengthen harmful gender stereotypes
for women. The term should be used with caution to ensure that there is no hesitation to
talk very clearly about discrimination and inequality.
B) Definition of Gender Equity:-
Gender equity can be defined as “fairness of treatment for women and
men, according to their respective needs. This may include equal treatment or
treatment that is different but which is considered equivalent in terms of rights,
benefits, obligations and opportunities” (International Labour Office
[ILO], 2000). It is distinct and different from the concept of gender equality,
which is the effective equality between men and women, that entails the concept
that all human beings, both men and women, are free to develop their personal
abilities and make choices without the limitations set by stereotypical views,
rigid gender roles, and prejudices. Gender equality means that the different
behavior, aspirations, and needs of women and men are considered, valued, and
favored equally. It does not mean that women and men have to become the same
but that their rights, responsibilities, and opportunities will not depend on
whether the y are born male or female (ILO, 2000).
According to the oxford dictionary, word Equity means fairness, righteousness
and justness. It means fairness, righteousness in the distribution of benefits and
responsibilities between two genders regardless of any gender discrimination of man and
woman.
C) Hurdles for Gender Equity:
In fact, in equality and discrimination which exist in family, society, culture
are the big hurdles to achieve gender Equity. According to Gender Equity report,
2018 , the three main barriers to equity include systematic bias in politics, lack of
B.Ed. Semester-IV 34 Paper-XIX

awareness in the community and poor community health. The hurdles for gender
equity are:-
1 Traditional patriarchal societics.
2 Poverty
3 Unequal distribution to opportunities.
4 Unequal access to education
5 Lesser social benefits
6 Violence against women
7 Lesser employment opportunities
D) Measure for Gender Equity:-
Gender equity is a worldwide need. Various movements have been there to
achieve gender equity. These include
- Universal declaration of Human Rights, UN, 1949.
- Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination against
women(CEDAW).
- Gender and Development Model(GAD)
- United Nations Gender Mainstreaming Policy and Strategy, 2006.
Many steps can be taken up which can help to achieve gender equity such as
involving balanced approach in sustainable development decision-making
processes, providing equal economic opportunities making gender equitable
policies, providing equitable access to sufficient food, providing equitable access
to personal safety measures, equitable power structures between men and women,
bringing change in ideologies and restrictions on institutions that promote gender
disparities.
- Gender Equity achievement expects for personal physical safety
- Non-violence against other gender
- Ensuring lawful identity
- Providing for equitable access to resources.
- Providing for equitable control over resources.
- Providing access to economic security by providing safe work opportunities
- Guarantee of access to public services
- Providing access to information
- Ensuring access to information
- Providing access to justice
- Providing for social inclusion
- Guarantee of access to Rights
B.Ed. Semester-IV 35 Paper-XIX

- Giving importance to social unity and variety.

“ If gender equality is the end, gender equity is the means”.
3.3 Concept Of Gender Equality:-
A) Gender Equality in India:-
Indian constitution provides for equality in terms of gender as a
fundamental right. In addition to it, several laws and policies are framed and
implemented by state governments also to achieve gender equality. There has
been a marked shift in the approach, i.e. from welfare to development, to
women’s issues. Women have been provided a platform for participation in
decision making by reserving the seats in the local bodies of Panchayats and
Municipalities. India had followed various international conventions and human
rights policies such as convention on Elimination of All forms of Discrimination
(CEDAW) in 1993, The Mexico plan of action (1975), the Nairobi Forward
looking strategies(1985), the Beijing Declaration and so on. However, there yet
exists too many gender inequalities showing a broad gap between the policies,
plans, laws and programmes implemented on one side and situation in reality on
the other hand. It has been a biggest challenge for India to achieve gender equality
in spite of social, political legal and constitutional efforts. Women still face,
humiliation, exploitation, valence, discrimination and indignity in the family and
other social institutions. India needs to make sincere efforts to fill the gap that
exists between the plans, policies and legal measures and actual situation.
D) Concept Of Gender Equality:
Gender equality can lead to a gender equal society where women and men will be
given the regard as equal members. They will be given the status of equal patrons and
will give equal rights and opportunities to participate in all spheres and all aspects of
society and of life at large. They will have equal share of benefits of social, economical,
political and cultural benefits. There will be no discriminations to anyone on the basis of
gender. In spite of different behaviors of men and women their expirations and needs will
be taken care off.
E) Role Of Various Stakeholders to Achieve Gender Equality:
a) Role of Schools:-
Gender inequalities have been seen in the schools also. These inequalities exist in
the school environment due to lack of awareness about the gender needs and
aspirations among some of the teachers . These are present in many components of
the school system like school campus and building, pupil-teacher relationship,
teaching - learning materials, teaching learning process and school administration.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 36 Paper-XIX

Schools need to create gender equality specific environment and strategies in the
school. The following components should be made a part of school programme.
 Sensitization towards gender issues:-
Teachers , parents and students including boys and girls and community needs to
be sensitized towards gender issues by creating awareness through activities like
lectures, seminars, skits, dramas, poetry and so on.
 Training of teachers:
Teachers need to be trained for teaching their students in such a way that boys as
well as girls feel that their gender needs and aspirations are being met with.
 Enabling girls through education to overcome gender- disparities:- Girls should be
enabled through education to express themselves with full confidence, to be a part
of decision-making , to have self-belief and to deal with matters related to them in
an effective manner.
 Enabling boys to accept gender equality positively:- Boys should be taught to
have respect for other gender, to avoid male ego and harsh attitude towards the
female members.
 Training the school personnel:- School personnel should be trained in order to
deal effectively with gender equality and promote it.
 Guidance and Counseling:- Teachers need to be prepared for guiding and
counseling their students as to solve their problems related to gender issues.
Councelling and guidance programmers should be organized in the schools to
create awareness among students about gender equality and to solve gender
inequality problems.
 Schools can take up certain other steps to bring gender equality such as creating
awareness through plays, creative writing, competitions, poster making, creating
audio and video on digital media and organizing races and other activities on
themes related to gender equality.
 Schools can honour and award people from the school and even outside who
promote gender equality and provide special scholarships for promoting gender
equality.
 Schools can keep a check on gender biased activities, conduct workshops related
to gender equality to make schools a safe place for education and work for both
the genders.
B) Role of Peer-group in gender equality:-
The gender bias at home is transmitted to school atmosphere when students from
gender biased homes enter the school. Gender differences can be observed in case of
B.Ed. Semester-IV 37 Paper-XIX

peer selection of the same sex by students. Children prefer to sit, play and go around
with the same sex peers. Peers also promote gender inequality by passing remarks on
personality and behavior of a child who do not conform to societal norms in these
aspects. Gender differences and inequalities among peers start at the stage when the
child enters the school and go on throughout the school stage. Schools must teach
children to treat their peers as individuals and not only as “Boys” and “Girls”.
C) Role of Teacher in Gender Equality:-
The role of teachers is most important as they have the maximum interaction with
students in the classroom for teaching learning processes. Their behavior and
personality impacts a student’s life the most. The teacher thus can teach their lessons
prescribed in the curriculum by bringing essence of gender equality into it. Teachers
need to undergo gender awareness and sensitization programs provided by the
government and other authorities. Classroom activities must be carried out in such a
way so as to reflect gender-equality. The teaching–learning materials, methods and
approaches should also selected and carefully so as to promote gender equality.
d) Role of Curriculum and Text Books in Gender Equality:-
School curriculums are generally over burdened with so many school subjects.
Therefore there is not much possibility to incorporate or add gender equality as a
subject.Framing of curriculum is done in such a manner that these do not have any
scope for any more additions of gender equality. If more of the women members from
different backgrounds are involved in curriculum framing processes as decision
makers, then there can be element of gender equality in curriculum. The curriculum
content should be such which can boost confidence and create awareness among girls
especially from the poor and weaker sections of the society. Even the teaching
learning materials such as text books should display the gender equal content.
Medium of instruction in mother tongue or local language, as has been recommended
in National Education policy, 2020 will help in Educating girls. National curriculum
framework, 2005 suggested for continuous and comprehensive evaluation (CCE). It
can be better for evaluation purposes rather than examinations. Teachers can use
CCE for providing more opportunities to award girls for their achievements and
thereby help to promote gender equality.
It can be said that if school, teachers and students do not strive for gender
equality, then the purpose of providing education in its true sense will be defeated.
That’s not all curriculum framing and its content need to be selected carefully so as to
cater to the specific needs of boys and girls.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 38 Paper-XIX

The major role of government for gender equality can never be ignored. It is the
government which has to take initiatives for beginning gender equality. Government
had to frame policies, legislations, provide funding, set standard norms, provide legal
measures and develop supervision procedures so that there are no gender differences
and every man and women or girl and boy has equal access to education and their
development. Government must take steps to promote gender equality, not only at
school level, but at higher education institutes also.
3.4 Concept of Gender Roles:-
Gender roles are the result of interactions between individuals and their
surrounding society. Gender roles teach individuals of each sex about the kind of
behavior they are expected to do in the society. The Gender roles are based on the
beliefs prevailing in the society about the differences is between males and females.
According to Wikipedia, Gender roles can be defined as the behaviors, values and
attitudes that a society considers appropriate for both male and female. “For
example, in traditional societies the role of men is as bread earner and women as
care taker of the home and family” or “A gender role, also known as a sex role, is
a social role encompassing a range of behavior and attitude that are generally
considered acceptable, appropriate or desirable for a person based on that
person’s biological or perceived sex”. Gender roles in society means how we are
expected to act, speak, dress, groom and conduct ourselves based upon our assigned
sex. For example, girls and women are generally expected to dress in typically
feminine ways and be polite, accommodating and nurturing. The boys and men are
expected to dress in typically masculine ways and be hard, tough and rude. Gender
roles are cultural and personal. Gender roles are learnt. These gender schemes are
deeply embedded cognitive frameworks regarding what defines masculine and
feminine. Gender roles are socially determined change over time and space and are
influenced by social, cultural and environmental factors characterizing a certain
society.

A) Prospectives on Gender Roles:-

The four perspectives are given below on gender roles:-
a) Traditional perspective:- According to traditional perspective, there are expects
two gender roles:-
i) Masculine gender role
ii) Feminine Gender role.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 39 Paper-XIX

Masculine Gender role, according to traditional perspective, is that men

are always good leaders. They are therefore assigned the role of family
head and take the role of decision maker and make the livelihood for the
family. According to this perspective, feminine gender role, assigns
women the characteristics of a nurturer. They are to nurture the family.
That means they are to look after children and those members of the
family, who are incapable of looking after themselves. They are expected
to take the household work where as men as masculine gender role are
assigned the work out of the home.
b) Biological perspective:-
Biologically the individuals are not gendered they are born as males or
females. Females and males have certain biological or physiological
features which make them inclined naturally towards feminine and
masculine gender roles respectively.
c) Ecological perspective:-
Ecological perspective on gender roles works on the principles of a branch
of biology i.e. Ecology. Ecology is the science that deals with the relations
of organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings. Ecological
perspective on gender roles also states that the gender roles are outcome of
relations of individuals to each other and to their physical surroundings i.e.
their environment.
d) Sociological perspective”-
Sociological perspective on gender role is derived from the sociological
concepts. In sociology, we study that roles are learnt. Moreover, gender
roles are constructed in the society by imitation, observing and learning.
According to this perspective, there is no role of biological characteristics
of the individual in learning gender roles. Sociological perspective
considers that gender roles vary from one society to another and these
keep on changing with time as these are always learnt and can be
unlearned and relearned.
B) Gender Roles : Masculine and Feminine
Gender roles are usually center edon conceptio off emininity and masculinity,
although there are exceptions and variations. The specifics regarding these gendere
dexpectations may vary substantially among cultures, while other character istics may be
common through out arange of cultures.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 40 Paper-XIX

Masculinity, also called manhood or manliness, is a set of attributes, behaviors,

and roles associated with boys and men. Traits traditionally viewed as masculine in
Western society include strength, courage, independence, leadership, and assertiveness.
Machismo is a form of masculinity that emphasizes power and is often associated with a
disregard for consequences and responsibility. TheTraits traditionally cited
as feminine include gentleness, empathy, humility, and sensitivity,
though traits associated with femininity vary across societies and individuals, and are
influenced by a variety of social and cultural factors.
a) Some traits that are considered masculine
 Dominant
 Strong
 Independent
 Assertive
 Brave
 Innovative
b) Some traits that are considered feminine
 Emotional
 Collaborative
 Nurturing
 Vulnerable
 Caring
 Humble
These roles are not natural but acquired in society.
3.5 Gender Biases:
A) Meaning of Bias: Bias means a cause to feel or show inclination or
prejudice for or against someone or something. Bias is a tendency to lean in a
certain direction, either in favor of or against a particular thing. To be truly biased
means to lack a neutral viewpoint on a something particular. We tend to think it's
a bad thing but that's not always true.

If you're biased toward something, then you lean favorably toward it; you
tend to think positively of it. Meanwhile, if you're biased against something, then
you lean negatively against it; you tend to think poorly of it. For example If
someone is biased toward a political affiliation, they will tend to speak more
positively of politicians belonging to the same party. If that same person is biased
against a different political affiliation, he or she might show their bias by quickly
B.Ed. Semester-IV 41 Paper-XIX

dismissing or disagreeing with anyone who aligns with that opposing political
view.

There are many forms of biases that exist in the society which are related
to religion, community, caste, class and so on. Gender Bias is one of these biases.
Let us learn about Gender Bias from this example. If someone has a bias
about women, they can take two different approaches. If they're biased toward
women, they might hire only women because they feel they make better
employees for some gender-related reason. Conversely, if they're biased against
women, they might hire a man over a more-qualified female candidate.
So Gender Bias means having belief about superiority of a gender to
another and discriminating with the other gender on this basis. Gender bias exists
in our society even now-a-days though it has been declared illegal by law. We
observe divorce cases where males are at a disadvantage of having child custody.
B) Definitions of Gender Bias:-
According to Longman Dictionary Contemporary English,“ Gender bias is
when men and women are treated differently in a way, that is unfair”.
According to Hill and Hill(2000),“ Gender Bias is Unequal treatment in
employment opportunity ( such as promotion, .pay, benefits and privileges) and
expectations due to attitudes based on the sex of an employee or group of
employees. Gender bias can be legitimate basis for a lawsuit under anti-
discrimination statutes”.
C) Gender biases in India:
Gender bias is an inseparable part of Indian society till now. Girl child in
India has always been treated as the second citizens. Female feticide is a gender
bias in India which starts before the birth of child. Dowry deaths and female
infanticide are also the worst gender bias existing in Indian society. Various
causes of Gender biasness in India are low literacy rate, traditional family system,
lack of guidance and awareness and so on. The Girl children in India are made to
work for the family at home instead of sending her to school. They are many
times forced to marry at an early age and thus they become immature mothers.
Therefore they are even not able to nourish their children well as being
uneducated, they are not aware of the health and nutrition. Such issues of gender
bias which exist in India need to be done away by law, by education of women,
providing employment opportunities to women and making them a part of
decision making processes in the country.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 42 Paper-XIX

3.6 Gender Stereotyping

A) Meaning of Gender Stereotyping:- Gender stereotypingis the practice
ofarbitrarily assigning characteristics and roles to an individual male and female
based on preconceived ideas and notions about the characteristics and roles of a
certain group based on their gender.
Stereotyping is an assumption that a person has whole range of
characteristics and abilities that we assume all members of the group
have. This assumption may or may not be true for a particular member of that
group.
Stereotyping is any commonly known public belief about a certain social
group or a type of individual. For example, if someone says, “Women cook
good food”. He or she is stereotyping women. If someone says, “Men are good
at mathematics”. He or she is stereotyping men. We know that all men may not
be good at mathematics.The above given two examples of stereo typing having
positive connotation but some stereotyping may have negative connotation also.
For example, if someone states, “Boys do nothing”. it might not be true for all the
boys.

B) Definition of Gender Stereotype

According to Cardwell(1996), “A stereotype is a fixed overgeneralized
belief about a particular group or a class of people. For example, “a
hell’s Angel” biker dresses in leather.
According to the High Commissioner,United Nations human rights define
gender stereotype as a generalized view or perception about attributes
or characteristics or the roles that are ought to be possessed
by or performed by men and women. It is the practice of ascribing to individual
woman and man specific attributes, characteristic or roles by reason only of her or
his membership in the social group of women or men.

C) Basic Classification of Gender Stereotypes:

Basic categories of gender stereotypes are of four types:
1. Personality traits: Women are thought to be soft spoken,
fragile and adjustable whereas men are thought to be sturdy, harsh and dominant.
2. Domestic behavior: Women are thought to be good at cooking, rearing
children and managing the household whereas men are thought to be good at
B.Ed. Semester-IV 43 Paper-XIX

other activities like repairing household equipment, driving and managing

the finances.
3. Occupation: Women are thought to work as nurses, cleaning woman and
custodian, teachers and receptionists. Men are supposed to be at jobs like
politicians, engineers, doctors, mechanics and accountants.

4. Physical appearance:It is assumed that women are slim and smaller in

height yet graceful whereas men are expected to have tall and broad body shape.

3.6 Suggested Questions:

1. Explain the concept of gender equity. Differentiate it from the concept of
gender equality.
2. Describe the various ways to bring gender equality in society.
3. What do you understand by the term “Gender Roles”?
4. Elaborate the concept of gender bias giving its definitions. What are the
various gender biases which exist in Indian society.
5. Discuss the concept of Gender stereotypes. Give different kinds of gender
stereotypes.

3.7 Suggested Readings

1.Goyal, S. (2017). Gender, School and Society.Twentyfirst Century Publications,
Patiala.
2.https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=soc_fa
cpub
3.https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/gender-roles
4.https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/gender-identity/sex-gender-identity/what-are-gender-roles-
and-stereotypes
5.https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/gender-equality
6.https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-0753-5_1131
B.Ed. Semester-IV 44 Paper-XIX

B.Ed. Semester-IV Paper-XIX

Gender, School and Society

Lesson no. 1.4 Author:Dr. Manju Sood

GENDER IDENTITY: CONCEPT AND DEVELOPMENT, GENDER ISSUES IN

INDIAN SOCIETY
4.1 Objectives of the Lesson
4.2 Concept of Gender Identity
4.3 Development of Gender Identity
4.4 Factors affecting Gender Identity
4.5 Gender Issues in Indian Society
4.7 Suggested Questions
4.8 Suggested Readings
4.1 Objectives of The Lessons:
After going through the lesson, the students will be able to:
- Explain the concept of Gender Identity
- Define the concept of Gender Identity
- Describe the process of Gender Identity
-Explain the gender issues in Indian Society
4.2 Concept of Gender Identity
The dictionary meaning of identity is “The fact of being whom or what a person
or thing is or it may be called as a close similarity or affinity. Identity is defined as who
you are, the way you think about yourself, the way people around view you and the
characteristics that define you. It may also be called as the relation established by
psychological identification.
Thus, the meaning of gender identity may be taken as one’s own perception of
having a particular gender which may or may not match with their biological sex. It may
be defined as a personal view or self-identification of a person himself or herself as male
or female.
For Example, if one considers himself or herself as Female and is convenient to
be called in feminine terms , then her/his gender identify is female.
Difference In Gender Identity aAnd Gender Role:-
Let’s continue with the example given above, the gender identity of the person
mentioned in the example is female. However, her gender role is referred to female only
in case he shows typically female characteristics in behavior, dress and Mannering.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 45 Paper-XIX

Actually gender role is outcome of manifestations within the society. It is decided

on the basis of characteristics like outlook and behavior observed by other people.
Gender identity usually starts its formation at very early stages in life. For
example, a child born with biological male sex is assigned the gender identity as a boy
and as a man at maturity. A child born with biologically female sex is assigned the
gender identity as a girl and as a woman at maturity. These individuals who are born with
neither biological male sex nor biological female sex are termed as trans-gender. These
trans-genders, even if assigned, gender identity as a girl but inwardly they feel that they
are neither a boy nor a girl.
In such cases, if their economic conditions allow, they try to avail changes in their
bodies through medical treatment, so as to match the gender, they feel they are. Thus they
try to achieve a particular gender identity of a man or women.
4.3 Gender Identity: Development
It is very natural feeling for most children to be identified as a boy or a girl.
Babies are assigned a male or female gender based on their physical and biological
features. This is how the process of gender identity is initiated.
New born babies since the ages from 0 to 2 years are not aware of their gender
identity.
It is important to note here that though the gender identity in most children, starts
to form their third birthday. However,transgenders are unable to perceive their proper
gender identity, even at very late stages of life. It happens so because of the social stigma
and pressure associated to the transgender identity.
Most of the children start learning about features and social aspects of gender
since their third birthday. They become aware of the physical differences between boys
and girls. They are able to label themselves as either a boy or a girl.
Most children have a fixed sense of their gender identity by the age of 4-6 years.
This process is known as consolidation.
Then Gender fluidity stage follows after the stage of “Peak of consolidation and
rigidity”. At this stage, gender identity becomes fluid again.
According to Barbara Newmann, there are four stages of gender identity
development:-
i) Understanding the concept of gender
ii) Learning gender role standards and stereotypes
iii) Identification with parents
iv) Forming gender preference
B.Ed. Semester-IV 46 Paper-XIX

4.4 Factor Influencing Gender Identity:-

There are not many clear cut theories about the formation of gender identity. But
various factors which have been found to impact gender identity are explained below:-
i) Biological factors:
These are pre and post natal hormone levels which are present at the time of
birth and after the birth of the child. Genetic constitution also influences the
gender identity.
ii) Social factors:
Socialization process of the child also influences gender identity formation.
The social factors influencing child identity are the thoughts regarding gender
roles expressed by the family members, dominant members, school authorities,
mass media and other people present in the child’s surroundings. Children get
much influenced by all these factors and form their gender identity.
iii) Observation and imitation:-
Children observe and imitate whatever happens around them in the society. In
this process, they closely observe the gender-related behavior of those people who
are around him they try to copy their behavior. Child is motivated to follow the
behavior of members of same gender but is reprimanded in case he follows the
behavior of members of other gender. For example, a girl child is motivated if she
tries to provide domestic help like her mother, but discouraged, in case she tries to
drive a car like her father. This is how the child will start learning her gender
identity by observation and imitation.
iv) Language:
In the process of language learning, children learn to differentiate between
male and female characteristics and thus start behaving according to their same
gender group members. That is how language learning plays and influential role
in gender identity.
v) Socio-Economic structure:-
Gender differentiation exists in every society. One of the two gender i.e.
male or female is powerful and the other is subdued. So it is the competitive spirit
for social and economic powers which plays an important role in gender identity
formation.
4.5 Gender Issues in Indian Society:-
India is a country where traditional patriarchal system is prevailing for centuries.
It has become a male dominated society. Females are not given a status equal to men in
such a country where women once more worshipped in the form of goddess. Thus
B.Ed. Semester-IV 47 Paper-XIX

inequality for women in various aspects like power, health and nutrition, education,
employment opportunities had raised many gender issues employment opportunities had
revised many gender issues which are given below :-
i) Health and Nutrition:-
The females in India had received less attention to their health as
compared to males. Women are supposed to have food only after the male
members have taken their food. Nutritious and fresh food is served to the male
members in preference to female members.

ii) Economic Conditions:

Women in India have less participation in Economic activities as they
have lesser exposure to economic opportunities, resources and lesser economic
independence. (Poverty Data) Women in India are married at an early age without
having their own earning resources Family responsibilities, further early age
without having their own earning resources. All these reasons cause gender
discrimination in economic conditions in Indian society. Female labour force
participation calculated as the share of women who are employed or are seeking
work as a proportion of the working age female in population stands distressingly
low at 23.4 percent (2019) as per the World Bank. Only 13 percent of farm land is
owned by women. About 41 percent households headed by India do not own land
and make a living through casual manual labour.

iii) Educational Backwardness:

Gender-based discrimination in education is both a cause and a
consequence of broader forms of gender inequality in society (Pulugurtha, 2008).
In India, the overall literacy rate is 64.8%, the male literacy rate is 75.3% and that
for females is 53.7%. It shows a huge gap of 21.6% between the literacy rate of
female and males. As per 2011 census in India, Gross enrollment rates in higher
education in 2015-16 was 25.4% for male whereas 23.5% for females which is
comparatively lesser. Females have never been at par with males. The student
enrolment at the undergraduate level has been 51% boys and 49% girls. Child
rights and you(CRY) organization states that out of every three girls enrolled in
education are able to complete class 12th at on appropriate age. These figures are
enough to highlight the plight of female education in India.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 48 Paper-XIX

iv) Social Set up :-

Indian society has a traditional matrilineal joint family system. Therefore,
women are confined to their domestic duties and have subdued roles, status and
power as compared to their male counterparts. Only males are considered to have
the main role in earning for the family whereas females are considered to play an
additional economic role in supporting the family. Decision making power also
lies with the family. The male and female child are reared and brought up with
different expected roles as adults. Anti-female social set up, preference to sons in
comparison to daughters, celebration of sons birth only, longing for a male child
in comparison to female, dowry system, bride burning, female feticide and
infanticide are bad practices of Indian social set up and culture which are strong
indications of social biasness.
v) Social Attitude:-
Indian society has transformed a lot due to development, technological
advancement, change in policies and social reforms. The mind set and social
attitude of people have not still changed towards women. They are still not having
any right to give voice to their identity. They are still made to face in human
behavior, social atrocities, exploitation and defame not only at home but at other
institutions the society also. There have not been any changes in social attitude
towards women in Indian society.

vi) Unawareness About Laws and Rights:-

Women in Indian society lack education which itself is a cause of their
lack of awareness about laws and fundamental rights. They are not aware of the
functioning of social, economic and political setup in the society. Even they are
ignorant of justice and discrimination being done to them. Women being ignorant
and unaware become a part to promote gender discrimination. Moreover,
uneducated women promote injustice to their women companions or women
family members. Women must be aware of many reforms and laws which have
been implemented by the government for their upliftment and remove gender
biasness. Government had taken steps for women like article 243-D which
promotes 33% reservation for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions and 33% of
the office of chairperson. They need to help themselves by coming on the
forefront to fight for their rights and of course, the basic instrument to there is
education of women i.e. higher literacy and more formal education which will
lead to greater employment opportunities.
B.Ed. Semester-IV 49 Paper-XIX

4.6 Suggested Questions

1. Define Gender Identities. Differentiate between gender identity and gender role.
2. Discuss the process of development of Gender Identity.
3. What are the factors influencing Gender Identity development? Describe in detail.
4. List various Gender issues existing in Indian society? Discuss these in detail.

4.7 Suggested Readings:

https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/917990-overviewreported crimes against
women.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_identity
https://www.mentalhelp.net/sexuality/gender-identity/aidvolunteers.org/en/gender-issues-
in-india/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_inequality_in_In