NOTES ON

PERSONAL
IDENTIFICATION
TECHNIQUES
CHAPTER I: IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

INTRODUCTION

Identification of a body, even if it is well preserved, is not an easy procedure, and it is necessary
for the operator to have a good knowledge of all available methods that can be applied to that particular
case.

In most countries, before autopsy of a normal identified body, a formal identification of the
victim is performed by relatives or friends who officially are considered “responsible” for this
identification on a bona fide basis. However, in all cases of badly preserved remains or in cases of well-
preserved cadavers for which no one can perform a reliable visual identification, biological identification
must be performed. Visual identification of well-preserved cadavers carried out by acquaintances in
some countries is the only adopted and accepted criterion.

However, many times this procedure has proven unreliable. Even in well-preserved cases, it is
advisable to carry out identification with a combination of criteria and not to depend only on visual
identification. In particular circumstances, in fact, this could be invalidated by the emotional condition of
the relatives or acquaintances, or by slight postmortem alterations. Thus, particularly in cases of human
remains that cannot be visually identified because they have been altered by putrefactive processes,
fire, or dismemberment, judges must be advised against performing visual identification or identification
by means of personal belongings or documents (e.g., identity card, driver’s license).

Personal identification is defined as ESTABLISHING THE IDENTITY OF AN INDIVIDUAL.

The need for personal identification arises in NATURAL MASS DISASTERS like:

 earth quakes,
 tsunamis,
 landslides,
 floods

and IN MAN-MADE DISASTERS such as

 terrorist attacks,
 bomb blasts,
 mass murders, and
 in cases when the body is highly decomposed or dismembered to deliberately conceal
the identity of the individual.

HOW IS POSITIVE BIOLOGICAL IDENTIFICATION ACHIEVED?

Interpol identification guidelines state that an accurate identification can be obtained by :

 comparing ante- and postmortem data, both circumstantial (clothes, personal

belongings, and so on), along with the findings from the external examination of the corpse
(physiognomic traits, fingerprints, and so forth) and by means of postmortem examination
(clinical, dental, DNA data). It is the authors’ opinion that even circumstantial information may
be dangerous on its own. It may happen that, both by error or intentionally, the personal
belongings of a person are found on the remains of another person. Thus, they must be
considered as circumstantial indications of identity, but not definite proof. It is clear that the risk
posed by each case must always be carefully evaluated.

Within this perspective, one should consider physical biological evidence as the foundation of
identification.

For this reason, any form on which such data (the so-called descriptors) is collected must be
extremely detailed. This implies drawing up, at the external examination, an accurate description both
of clothing/personal belongings and body data:

1. sex
2. height
3. constitution
4. skin color
Some of these features, which are general and observer-dependent, are potentially misleading.

However, there are more specific features and descriptors such as:

1. scars
2. moles
3. gross anomalies

that often may be sufficient for identification. Finally, within the context of the autopsy, it is possible to
carry out a dental examination, to verify organ anomalies, and to take blood samples and samples of
other tissues for genetic examination, together with samples and radiographs of bone tissue.

Apart from the issue of identifying a well-preserved cadaver with personal descriptors such as
physiognomy, tattoos, and so on, THERE ARE FOUR MAIN DISCIPLINES INVOLVED IN THE
IDENTIFICATION OF HUMAN REMAINS:

1. DNA,
2. FINGERPRINT ANALYSIS
3. ODONTOLOGY, AND
4. ANTHROPOLOGY (OR BETTER YET, OSTEOLOGY).

GENETIC AND DACTYLOSCOPIC (FINGERPRINTING) INVESTIGATIONS are better known to

criminal investigation departments and to the magistrates. In the first case, one compares the genetic
asset of the remains with those of the presumed relatives (children, parents, siblings) or with that
obtained from residual cells on the personal belongings used by the person in life (for example, razors,
combs, toothbrushes, and so forth). THE GENETIC INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES ARE CERTAINLY VERY
EFFECTIVE AND HAVE GREAT POTENTIAL. However, at times they may not be applicable as there could
be problems in the extraction of DNA from skeletal remains, or relatives suitable for a genetic
comparison may not be available.

On the other hand, concerning the use of dactyloscopic methods, the problem consists
sometimes in the fact that the fingerprint is poorly detectable (even if this problem can be partly
overcome with techniques to be discussed further on), and that the person’s fingerprints need to have
been taken in life. This frequently means that he or she has to have a criminal record, is part of the
military, or the country of origin registers fingerprints on identity cards. Many countries have a database
(automated fingerprint identification system, or AFIS) that permits one to compare the fingerprints
inserted in a databank with those of subjects already fingerprinted in life. Once the fingerprint of the
cadaver is entered, this computerized system will return a series of possible matches, which the
fingerprint expert will then evaluate.

Forensic anthropology and odontology methods, which compare the status and shape of teeth
and bones, ARE VALID ALTERNATIVE METHODS. They are advantageous methods because they are
faster and less costly; however, they may suffer, in the view of some judges, of the qualitative and
nonquantitative responses they give.

Genetic and fingerprinting methods give a quantitative result, or at least statistics have been
performed on the specific traits studied that allow one to answer in a quantitative manner on the
probability of two individuals having similar characteristics—in the first case, for the distribution of
different alleles within a population; in the second, for the frequency of minutiae on the finger. In the
case of morphological methods (such as the odontological and anthropological ones), a unanimous and
clear agreement on the quality and quantity of the characters necessary in order to achieve personal
identification does not exist. The recurrence of discordant characters settles the case by excluding the
identity; some or many concordant characters, particularly if not uncommon within the population, can
only permit expression of a judgment of compatibility or possibility; few characters or a combination of
characters, rare among the population, will allow one to express a judgment of high probability or
certainty.
CHAPTER II: CRIMINAL ANTHROPOMETRY, CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY,
ODONTOLOGY, PHOTOGRAPHY, IRIS RECOGNITION, GRAPHOLOGY, DNA
FINGERPRINTING, GAIT ANALYSIS, POROSCOPY, PODOSCOPY, RIDGEOLOGY
– ITS HISTORY, PROCESS OF RECORDING, PROCESS OF IDENTIFICATION,
INVESTIGATIVE AND EVIDENTIARY VALUE

I. CRIMINAL ANTHROPOMETRY (THE FIRST SYSTEM OF IDENTIFICATION)

The Anthropometric System/Bertillon System/Bertillonage System, invented by
French criminologist Alphonse Bertillon in 1879, was a technique for describing individuals on
the basis of a catalogue of physical measurements, including standing height, sitting height
(length of trunk and head), distance between fingertips with arms outstretched, and size of head,
right ear, left foot, digits, and forearm. In addition, distinctive personal features, such as eye
colour, scars, and deformities, were noted. 

HISTORY

Alphonse Bertillon was the son of the physician and founder of the Society of
Anthropology of Paris, Louis-Adolphe Bertillon. Although the process of obtaining human
measurements had originated in ancient civilizations, Alphonse Bertillon is credited as the
father of anthropometrics based on his classification system known as the “anthropometric
system” or “judicial anthropometry”.
Alphonse Bertillon began his career working for the Paris police force in the criminal
records department. It was here that Bertillon recognized the recurring problem that it was
becoming increasingly more difficult to identify repeat offenders, as the criminal records were
stored alphabetically and many criminals were devising aliases in order to avoid deportation and
harsher sentences. To address this issue, Bertillon devised a new classification system based on
anthropomorphic measurements with the assumptions that bone density is fixed past the age of
20 years, and human dimensions are intrinsically highly variable. Bertillon obtained
measurements of height, breadth, foot size, length and width of the head, length of the middle
finger, and the length of the left forearm, as well as other morphological and distinguishing
characteristics of criminals in custody. He then classified each individual as small, medium, or
large, and added frontal and profile photography to each file. Such photography is still currently
used today in the form of a “mug shot”. After convincing the Paris criminology department to
implement Bertillon’s system, this method of classification was used to quickly and easily
identify unknown individuals and repeat offenders. The use of this anthropometric system was
subsequently termed “Bertillonage” and spread rapidly throughout the world during the late
1800s and early 1900s.
In addition to physical measurements, Alphonse recorded physical descriptors of the
person (i.e., hair and eye color), including any unusual markings on the body (i.e., tattoos
and scars). This was known as Portrait Parle or a speaking portrait that described many
personal characteristics.
In order to make use of this information in days well before the invention of a computer
database, Bertillon created categories to be able to classify and retrieve information cards that
could be helpful in identifying an individual based on previous measurements taken. By 1884,
Bertillon’s system was able to identify 241 recidivists. In 1888, Alphonse Bertillon was
promoted to head a newly formed Department of Judicial Identity for the Paris police. Due to its
success, Anthropometry or Bertillonage spread throughout the world with the United States
adopting it in 1887 and Great Britain in 1894.
At this time, fingerprinting techniques were being developed for comparison purposes.
Bertillon resisted the use of fingerprints and clearly favored his own method of
identification. Interestingly enough, however, he was the first European to solve a murder
(Scheffer case) using fingerprints in 1902. Significant errors in the Dreyfus case (1894), the
Will and William West case (1903) and the theft of the Mona Lisa painting (1911) largely
contributed to the demise of Anthropometry and the wide acceptance of fingerprinting.
PROCESS OF RECORDING
A TRIPARTITE SYSTEM
Bertillon’s system is often associated simply with anthropometry, the scientific study of
the measurements and proportions of the human body, but in fact his system consisted of three
parts, of which direct measurement of the criminal body was only the first. “His method
proceeded in two stages, description (signalement) and classification” (Kaluszynski 2001, 125).
Let us look at the three distinct parts of the Bartillonage process in some detail.
1. MEASUREMENT
“Bertillon started from the observations that the human bone structure was more or less
absolutely fixed by the age of twenty, and that the skeleton varied tremendously in its
dimensions between one person and another. On the basis of these observations, it was
possible to establish descriptive data that derived from specific bone measurements”
(Kaluszynski 2001). Simon A. Cole describes how the measurement process would have worked
in any routine arrest at the time: “A prisoner being Bertillonaged was first subjected to eleven
different anthropometric measurements taken with specially designed calipers, gauges, and rulers
by one of Bertillon’s rigorously trained clerks, or ‘Bertillon operators.’ Each measurement was a
meticulously choreographed set of gestures in which the exact positioning and movement of both
bodies—prisoner and operator—were dictated by Bertillon’s precise instructions” (2001, 34).
The prisoner would undergo eleven precise measurements, selected by Bertillon because
they were the proportions “least likely to be affected by weight change or aging over time
(Cole 2001, 37). These “osseus lengths” were: height, head length, head breadth, arm span,
sitting height, left middle finger length, left little finger length, left foot length, left forearm, right
ear length, and cheek width. Kittler has determined that these “[e]leven measurements alone
would already allow for 177,147 different combinations” (Kittler 2010, 141). (Kittler doesn't tell
us how he arrived at this precise figure, and its exactitude is highly dubious.)
Martine Kaluszynski notes that, “Anthropometry was premised on a proven principle:
all human measurements, of whatever kind, obeyed a natural law of statistical distribution.
The choice of features to be measured had to be based on their non-correlation as well as on their
fixity and clarity. This represented a noteworthy bid to move away from a model confined to
generalizations: here it was the detail, the particular, that mattered”. Certain problems arose,
however, with applying anthropometry to women and children, “since their measurements did
not conform to the statistical norms”. Errors in taking the measurements were also a constant
threat to the integrity of the system. “The system was in fact only a means of negative
identification that enabled probably but not absolute identifications”.

2. PORTRAIT PARLE
Bertillon needed to augment his system with a device for not only proving non-identity
through a method of elimination—the raison d’etre of anthropometric bone measurements—but
also establishing positive identity. Thus he developed the portrait parlé, the spoken portrait: a
rigorous system of verbal description of the physical characteristics of a subject. “Rather
than merely providing a black space for physical description, the ‘Bertillon card’ included
spaces for descriptions of the prisoner’s eyes, ears, lips, beard, hair color, skin color,
ethnicity, forehead, nose, build, chin, general contour of head, hair growth pattern,
eyebrows, eyeball and orbit, mouth, physiognomic expression, neck, inclination of
shoulders, attitude, general demeanor, voice and language, and habiliments [clothing]”
(Cole 2001, 37).
Bertillon would go on to hone his system of physical description into a precise,
“scientific” language, “which he called a ‘morphological vocabulary,’ to describe human
features in all their variety” (Cole 2001, 37), as well as a system of abbreviations to render that
vocabulary in the most efficient form possible. For example, a typical sentence in a portrait
parlé might read: cicatrix, recticular, of dimension of one centimeter, oblique external, on
middle phalanx of middle finger, left side, posterior face. In Bertillon’s standardized system of
“abridged writing,” this sentence could be reduced to:
“cic. r. of 1b ε, ml. 2df. M g.” (Cole 2001, 43).
These abbreviations allowed the Bertillon operator to provided detailed physical
descriptions on the limited space of the Bertillon card. “Instead of writing out a description in
complete sentences, choosing which features to record, the identification clerk needed only to
complete the Bertillon card, which provided dedicated spaces for each aspect of the face and
body” (Cole 2001, 43). Bertillon foresaw a situation in which his morphological vocabulary
could become a universal language, able to be transmitted via telegraph. Bertillon wrote, “The
ideal to be attained would be for it to be made possible for a person operating in another place,
when he read a statement of this kind, to reproduce on his own body designs imitating exactly, as
to general form, dimension and position, the marks of the individual described” (Bertillon 1896,
55). For Bertillon, the material body was made immaterial; as Matt Matsuda puts it, the criminal
body became “an electric body of speed, transmitted telegraphically. This was the body to be
read in many cities, provinces, across borders and regions, a body sent and received as
transmitted numbers, then transcribed, translated, and reconstructed, a body whose materiality
was print, wire, electricity, and transcription” (qtd. in Cole 2001, 48). Our contemporary
biopolitical fears—of biometric bureaucrats buying and selling our genetic codes in some future
eugenic marketplace (Gattaca), for example—can be traced back to this very moment, a moment
in which, as Cole puts it, “Bertillon envisioned nothing less than the complete reduction of
human identity to a language of notations which could be organized and accessed at will. . . .
Bertillon reduced the body to language and then to code—turning the criminal body into pure
information” (Cole 2001, 49).

3. PHOTOGRAPHY
The third component of the Bertillonage process was photography. Bertillon did not
introduce photography into criminology; indeed, as Martine Kaluszynski explains, photography
had been a part of police work for a decade before Bertillon’s system was perfected:
Photography was in use in some sections of the police prefecture in Paris as early as
1872. The photographic department had been established unofficially for the purposes of
political research, and together with the printing department comprised the criminal investigation
department of the police prefecture. From this time on, all suspects were photographed, but very
unsystematically—from various angles and with various degrees of expertise—and the prints
accumulated in disorderly piles. They were catalogued by name alone, which meant that they
were useless for identifying any malefactor who simply changed his name. Thus the problem
was how to match the sixty thousand photographs assembled by the criminal investigation
service with any of the hundred individuals arrested in the city every day. (Kaluszynski 2001,
124)
What Bertillon did was standardize the process of criminal photography, and added
the essential organizational element that allowed the photographs to be of some use to
police officers trying to identify suspects and determine if they were in fact repeat
offenders.
Even though Bertillon did incorporate photography into his system, he did not fully
embrace the medium as a completely effective tool for criminal identification. As Simon Cole
notes, “unlike many of his contemporaries, [Bertillon] was not impressed by the supposed
objectivity of the camera” (Cole 2001, 48). In some ways, this is a very contemporary skepticism
about the “truth” of photography, one that has become much more prevalent with digital
photography and PhotoShop; Bertillon exhibited it avant le lettre. To get around this problem,
Bertillon devised a rigorous process of photography he called “descriptive photography”
(photographie signalétique), also known as called “Metric photography”: a standardized,
mechanized set of rules and procedures that would ensure the most “objective” view possible
when photographing an object. Kaluszynski describes the crucial difference between descriptive
photography and previous iterations of the medium: “Seen as an objective and impartial
document—not a ‘portrait’ in the artistic or usual sense of the term—the photograph was
intended to be a perfectly consistent medium of representation whose precise and accurate record
of physical traits would serve for all subsequent comparison. Hence the descriptive photograph
was taken in rigorously prescribed conditions, including size (one-seventh reduction) and
position (full-face, profile), and with improved equipment” (Kaluszynski 2001, 126 n. 9).
When Bertillonage was being exported the process of metric photography was an aspect
of the system that was highlighted as being particularly adaptable and useful for police
departments around the world. Louis Tomellini, the author of a translated version of Bertillon’s
technical manual, describes how metric photography can become integrated into the over-all
regime of measurement and quantification:
Until recently professional photographers have been concerned in making artistic
photographs, but they have never considered the advantage of having photographs which could
give at the same time not only the forms but also the real dimensions of objects and distances,
things of considerable interest in judicial and medico-legal practice. Now modern objectives,
when properly employed, may become excellent measuring instruments. Metric photography
comprises the whole of the methods which make a photograph, taken by the usual processes,
capable of being, when desired, measured and even converted into a plan of known scale.
(Tomellini 1908, 14).
The representation of “real dimensions of objects and distances” was achieved with an
intricate system of angles and grids used to precisely calibrate the scale of the subsequent
photographic prints. While the grids used to graduate metric photography made for precise
measurements they also point up the fact that the body is now made to be entirely quantifiable.
As Tiziana Terranova notes, “There is always something both utopian and dystopian about a
grid. Whether it is a city plan, a prison layout or an accountant’s spreadsheet, the grid is a
principle of division and order, making possible the counting and location of things” (Terranova
2004, 46). With metric photography, the body is totally knowable, totally locatable, totally
naked.
Friedrich Kittler has over-emphasized the role that photography played in Bertillonage; in
his account he (over)emphasizes the role played by photography in the system while totally
dismissing the “descriptions,” the portrait parlé: “In the age of literary realism, it is self-evident
that Bertillon replaced these necessarily imprecise descriptions with photographs” (2010, 141). If
Kittler had been more exacting in his research he would have found that it was not “self-evident”
at all that Bertillon replaced (spoken) descriptions with photography; as Cole has shown,
Bertillon was notably skeptical about the anthropometric potentiality of photography. Kittler
does, however, point to a common theme in with regards to metric photography—the interaction
between art and surveillance: “the fact that it did not become famous as ‘art’ (in the old
European understanding of the term) until or rather precisely after this criminalistic success
proves . . . that all talk of photography as art actually serves to conceal its strategic functions”
(Kittler 2010, 145). Cole, correctly by all accounts, argues for precisely the opposite hierarchy of
Bertillonage components as Kittler: “With the portrait parlé, Bertillon sought to replace the
photograph with a systematized language as the medium of police communication and
surveillance. . . . Instead of the visual image, Bertillon put his faith in words and numbers” (Cole
2001, 48).
With all three components assembled on one piece of paper—the anthropometric
measurements, the detailed physical descriptions, and the metric photographs—the “Bertillon
operator would take a newly obtained identification card into the archive, an enormous room full
of criminal records indexed according to Bertillon’s system, and look for a card with matching
anthropometric values” (Cole 2001, 45). This archive represented the second allowed for the
precise filing of biometric information for easy retrieval. The power over biological life was now
at fingertips of the police investor in the archive. We can thus see how Bertillonage is part and
parcel of Foucault’s conception of biopower. Although Foucault is not referring to Bertillon
here, the quotation is all too applicable:
For the first time in history, no doubt, biological existence was reflected in political
existence; the fact of living was no longer an inaccessible substrate that only emerged from time
to time, amid the randomness of death and its fatality; part of it passed into knowledge’s field of
control and power’s sphere of intervention. Power would no longer be dealing with legal subjects
over whom the ultimate dominion was death, but with living beings, and the mastery it would be
able to exercise over them would have to be applied at the level of life itself; it was the taking
charge of life, more than the threat of death, that gave power its access even to the body. (1978,
142-43).

the bertillon cards included two photographs, one face-on, one in profile
DECLINE OF BERTILLONAGE

fingerprint killed the bertillon star

The complexity of the Bertillon system—the very thing that provided it with such
accurate and reliable data—also proved to be its downfall: it was simply too cumbersome to
replicate with sufficient accuracy. As soon as Bertillon’s procedures began to be disseminated
outside of Paris there were problems; as Cole explains:
Learning the system from translated books, far from the exacting presence of Bertillon
himself, identification clerks seldom replicated the rigor that characterized operations in Paris.
Instead, they skimped on learning the morphological vocabulary, glossed over the precise
movements in the measuring process, and contented themselves with sloppily recording a few
measurements. Worse, most identification bureaus, too proud to simply adopt Bertillon’s system
wholesale, took it upon themselves to modify various aspects of the system. (Cole 2001, 52)
Bertillon anticipated these problems, writing a strongly-worded message in his
instruction manual directed towards all those who would consider meddling with his finally
tuned methods:
The arrangement of these instruments was the subject of many experiments and
numberless improvements before they reached their present shape, which we consider as final.
So we reject in advance every modification, every further change, however slight, either in their
form or in their manner of using them. That is a great temptation for beginners, to whom
numerous new ideas occur, but who are not aware that all these ideas, even those that they
believe to be the most original, the most personal, have already been proposed by others, tried
and finally rejected for divers reasons. (Bertillon 1896, 19)
Alas, Bertillon’s warnings were not heeded, and the accuracy of anthropometric
measurements—and the reputation of the system as a whole—suffered as result.
Even if the integrity of Bertillon’s system could be sustained outside of Paris, it was soon
to be overtaken by another form of criminal identification. As Kaluszynski notes, “at the last
moment before it seemed likely to dominate the future, anthropometry was to undergo a rude
shock. Its success had barely been established and savored when its supremacy began to falter in
the face of a new and infallible technique” (2001, 128). Of course, the new technique was
fingerprinting, a much simpler process than Bertillonage. “A fingerprint is a physical sign that
cannot be falsified or disguised, and the mathematical likelihood of two individuals having
identical fingerprints is infinitely small” (128). Occam’s razor would dictate that fingerprinting
soon supplant Bertillonage as the world-wide standard for criminal identification.
The Will West/William West Case: Did two nearly identical inmates changed the way
people are identified?

In 1903 when Will West, convicted of a crime, was delivered to Leavenworth Penitentiary to
serve his sentence, the records clerk M.W. McClaughry informed him he was already in
Leavenworth, serving time for murder. It turned out that a person of practically identical name,
appearance and Bertillon measurements was already in the prison system. 

The Bertillon system for identification, developed by French anthropologist Alphonse

Bertillon in the 1880s, involved taking precise physical measurements of a person’s head and
body, which were included on a card along with photos and a description of identifying personal
features.

A chronology of the West’s case shows that the records clerk learned of the fingerprint
identification system from Sgt. John K. Ferrier of Scotland Yard in 1904 at the St. Louis World’s
Fair. In September of that year, Major R.W. McClaughry, warden at the penitentiary, requested
permission to install the fingerprint system at Leavenworth. In November that permission was
granted. Will and William West's unique fingerprints were finally captured and compared in
1905.

The Will/William West case has been credited with ushering in the use of fingerprints for
identifying inmates by law enforcement. In truth, the case was not well known until after the
fingerprint identification was already established in the U.S. (It was adopted by the U.S. Military
in 1905, and quickly thereafter adopted by police agencies.) 

The case was not reported in print until 1918 in an article “Personal

Identification” by Harris Wilder and Bert Wentworth. However, the West case is an
interesting story, and does help to illustrate the reason why fingerprinting replaced the
Bertillon system. 

Today, fingerprinting remains critical for identification in the criminal justice system,
useful for identifying records and maintaining criminal history.
2. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY / FORENSIC OSTEOLOGY
 is a special sub-field of physical anthropology (the study of human remains)
 involves applying skeletal analysis and techniques in archaeology to solving
criminal cases.
(When human remains or a suspected burial are found,  forensic anthropologists are
called upon to gather information from the bones and their recovery context to determine:
 who died,
 how they died, and
 how long ago they died)  

FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGISTS specialize in analyzing hard tissues such as bones. With their
training in archaeology, they are also knowledgeable about excavating buried remains and
meticulously recording the evidence. 

READING A SKELETON

A forensic anthropologist can read the evidence in a skeleton like you read a book. The
techniques they use to answer questions in criminal cases can be applied to skeletons of any
age, modern or ancient. The stages of growth and development in bones provide information
about whether the remains represent a child or adult.

 THE SHAPE OF PELVIC BONES - the best evidence for the sex of the person.
 ABNORMAL CHANGES IN THE SHAPE, SIZE AND DENSITY OF BONES - can
indicate disease or trauma.
 BONES MARKED BY PERIMORTEM INJURIES, SUCH AS UNHEALED FRACTURES,
BULLET HOLES, OR CUTS - can reveal cause of death.

The trained anthropologist can also able to identify skeletal clues of ancestry.
TECHNIQUES: LEAVING NO BONE UNTURNED

Forensic Anthropologists use a variety of techniques to analyze human remains and

record their observations.

For example, the bones are typically photographed and X-rayed. Some remains may
undergo CT scanning or be examined with high-powered microscopes. These techniques
provide detailed information about remains without altering them while providing a visual
record. DNA analysis may be used to help establish identity. This type of testing is most often
used in modern forensic case work, but mitochondrial DNA in bones and teeth can be used to
confirm relationships of old remains with deceased or living descendants. Other chemical
analyses, such as those involving isotopes, can provide information about the age of bones and
a person’s diet.

The data gathered is studied and combined to draw conclusions about the deceased
individual. For a modern case, photos of the skull may be superimposed on photos of missing
people to look for consistencies between the bone and fleshed form. Even in cases where no
photos exist, the face can be reconstructed based on the underlying bone structure and known
standards of facial tissue thicknesses.

COLLECTIONS OF BONES

Comparing found remains to other human skeletons is essential for many analyses. The
National Museum of Natural History has one of the world's largest Biological Anthropology
collections, with over 30,000 sets of human remains representing populations from around the
world. Many of the skeletons have associated age, sex, ancestry, and cause of death data.
Individual remains with known biological information are especially valuable references.
Forensic anthropologists have used these skeletons to develop standards for determining sex,
age and ancestry in unknown remains. The bones and teeth are also used as comparative
materials in cases where interpretation of certain features is difficult. They are also used to
train students who are the next generation of biological anthropologists. Skeletal reference
series may also be used to document trends in health and population structures over time.
Smithsonian Curator Dr. Douglas Ubelaker, looking at a range of skulls from 16th-20th century
Spain and Portugal, found that women's faces got larger over time.

FORENSIC INVESTIGATION

NOTE: Forensic anthropologists may work with bodies in a variety of conditions,

including as mummies, piles of bones, decomposed bodies, charred remains, and the victims of
aircraft crashes or natural catastrophes.
Investigations often begin with a ground search team using cadaver dogs or a low-
flying plane to locate a missing body or skeleton. As a meticulous examination of any death
scene is imperative, FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGISTS ARE FREQUENTLY INVOLVED AT THE
EARLIEST STAGES OF INVESTIGATING A HUMAN SKELETON. After mapping, photographing,
and labeling relevant items at the scene, the osteological evidence is examined at a forensic
laboratory. Bone fragments are sorted according to size and shape and fitted together when
possible.

NOTE: As experts in osteology, forensic anthropologists focus on human skeletal traits,

such as skull features, dental characteristics, and subcranial bone sizes and shapes, that vary
from individual to individual and from population to population. When compared with medical
and dental records, the presence of bone anomalies, metal plates or pins, or specific dental
characteristics can help to make a positive identification. In addition to revealing the age, sex,
size, stature, health, and ethnic population of the decedent, an examination of the skeleton
may reveal evidence concerning pathology and any antemortem (before death), perimortem
(at the time of death), or postmortem (after death) trauma. Often the time elapsed since death
can be determined by using forensic entomology, which studies the relationship
between insects and decomposition.

NOTE: THE ADULT HUMAN SKELETON HAS 206 BONES, although this number may vary
among individuals; a person may have an extra vertebra or rib.

Generally,

 the adult male skeleton is larger and more robust in appearance than the adult
female skeleton.

 An examination of the pelvis can be used to determine the sex of an individual;

a smaller pelvic inlet and narrower subpelvic opening indicate an adult male,
whereas a larger pelvic inlet and wider subpelvic opening indicate an adult
female.
The general age of an individual may be determined by skull size, condition of
sutures, and an examination of the teeth, as well as by the length of particular
bones (e.g., the femur and the humerus) and the degree of ossification (bone
hardening) that has taken place between the shaft of a long bone and its end
caps.
NOTE: In the case of victims with gunshot wounds to the head, a forensic study of bullet
holes and fractures in a skull can determine the trajectory of bullets through the cranium. An
entrance wound is generally smaller and rounder, whereas the usually larger exit wound is
more ragged and shows external beveling. Markings on a shell or bullet are photographed
through a microscope and compared with information in a national database for definite
identification. If a bullet is not found, then X-rays of the skull may reveal bullet fragments.

3. FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY

DEFINITIONS:

1. "Forensic odontology is the study and practice of aspects of dentistry that are relevant to
legal problems." (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2009)  

Teeth are very resistant to damage by fire, crashes, and explosions, thus, forensic odontology
can be very useful for the following:

 Identification of human remains from mass disasters (eg, airplane crashes, natural
disasters, wars, terrorist attacks)

2. Forensic odontology involves the correct collection, management, interpretation, evaluation,

and presentation of dental evidence for criminal or civil legal proceedings: a combination of
various aspects of the dental, scientific, and legal professions (Hinchliffe 2011).
NOTE: THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY AS A UNIQUE DISCIPLINE HAS BEEN
ATTRIBUTED TO DR. OSCAR AMOEDO (CONSIDERED THE FATHER OF FORENSIC
ODONTOLOGY), WHO IDENTIFIED THE VICTIMS OF A FIRE ACCIDENT IN PARIS, FRANCE, IN
1898.
NOTE:
PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 1575
REQUIRING PRACTITIONERS OF DENTISTRY TO KEEP RECORDS OF THEIR PATIENTS
WHEREAS, the identification of persons is a necessary factor in solving crimes and in settling
certain disputes such as claims for damages, insurance, and inheritance;
WHEREAS, in those cases where the identification of persons cannot be established through the
regular means, identification through definition has been proven to be necessary and effective;
WHEREAS, however, records of dentition of persons are often not available due to the lack of
systematic recording by dental practitioners of the dental history of their patients.
NOW, THEREFORE, I, FERDINAND E. MARCOS, President of the Philippines, by virtue of the
powers in me vested by the Constitution, do hereby order and decree the following:
Section 1. It shall be obligatory upon all practitioners of dentistry to keep and maintain an
accurate and complete record of the dentition of all their patients which shall include a history
and description of the patient's dentition and the treatments made thereon.
Sec. 2. Upon the lapse of ten years from the last entry, dental practitioners shall turn over the
dental records of their patients to the National Bureau of Investigation for record purposes:
Provided, that the said practitioners may retain copies thereof for their own files.
Sec. 3. Any violation of the provisions of this Decree shall be punishable by a fine of not less
than one hundred pesos nor more than one thousand pesos.
Sec. 4. This Decree shall take effect immediately.
DONE in the City of Manila, this 11th day of June, in the year of Our Lord, nineteen hundred and
seventy-eight.

4. FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

A close relationship between medical, anthropological and judicial photography is assumed.

The investigation of the photographic practices in the prison and at the police reveals that the
general discourse on photography was far more important for the application of photography
in penal institutions. When the criminal police began to use photographs systematically in the
1870s it was more to display effectiveness than a real means of detection. After some years of
collecting, the collections became cumbersome and unmanageable. Alphonse Bertillon's
innovations solved this problem and later he introduced a specialised ‘’judicial style’’ of
photography into the police. Still, photographs were more important in representing scientific
policing than in detecting criminals.
Figure 2  : Anon.: Anthropometric card, 27 May 1898 (fingerprints probably added later), no format or
technique given ; Friedrich Paul, Handbuch der kriminalistischen Photographie, Berlin 1900 ; Courtesy:
Polizeihistorische Sammlung, Berlin

POLICE OFFICERS BECAME MORE INTERESTED IN PHOTOGRAPHY.

Most advocates of criminal police photography emphasised that the images should always
be taken strictly according to Bertillon's rules and should not resemble a portrait produced by
a commercial photographer. This was a move away from the common practice of photography.
Bertillon had insisted that a portrait for police purposes had to be very different from the
products of commercial photographers in style, pose, format, focusing, and exposure. In short,
a scientific and police point of view should guide the photographer working for the police.
Professional police photographs demanded a good deal of training for the person producing
them and the police officer using them. CONSEQUENTLY, THE FIRST PROPER POLICE
PHOTOGRAPHERS WERE EMPLOYED IN THE 1890S. In addition, the police officer in the large
city could no longer rely on his own experience alone ; he had to accommodate the new system
of knowledge and had to supply his information in a way that could be integrated into the
different files.
However, in police publications, on wanted posters, and for the aim of detection, standard
portrait photographs, taken by commercial photographers, remained in use (Fig. 3). Equally,
popular notions about photography among police officers were not obscured by criminological
theories. As proof of criminological theories about the appearance of habitual criminals,
photographs were ambiguous, as already shown regarding Lombroso and Galton. Most
criminologists, however, did not use portraits as evidence or arguments for their theoretical
approaches. To some observers, they evoked doubts about the validity of those theories or
were even proof to the contrary.

Figure 3: Anon. : Unknown pickpockets - apprehended at Frankfurt/M., 1899, tech. unknown,

5,9 x 4,9 cm (each); Deutsches Fahndungsblatt 1899, 1, p. 875; Staats- und
Universitätsbibliothek Hamburg, Fotostelle

To policemen, photography was, by the 1890s, an instrument they were used to. Even
after the Bertillonage was replaced by fingerprinting, photographic portraits taken according to
Bertillon's rules remained in use. It was still considered to be a useful supplement to personal
files, a measure to build confidence, a symbol of efficiency and professionalism. In practice,
most police officers would not give up any technological aid they had, even if this aid was more
a symbol of a systematic approach to investigating crime and criminals and a means to create
an image of efficacy. When the British Home Office ordered the cessation of the Bertillonage
and the introduction of fingerprints, the Chief Constable of the Staffordshire County Police
wrote to the Home Office on 7 October 1902 asking if it is intended that application is no longer
to be made for the photographs of prisoners. « He went on :’in the majority of cases, I find the
photographs are more necessary for local purposes than the thumbmarks ». The Home Office
had to confirm that photographs could still be obtained from the prisons, but that it was no
longer necessary to send photographs to Scotland Yard for the purpose of identification. This
indicates that photographs were considered to be a practical aid for detection in a narrow
sense and not seen as a means of identification.
5. IRIS RECOGNITION

Iris Recognition
IRIS RECOGNITION OR IRIS SCANNING is the process of using visible and near-infrared light
to take a high-contrast photograph of a person’s iris. It is a form of biometric technology in the
same category as face recognition and fingerprinting. 

Advocates of iris scanning technology claim it allows law enforcement officers to compare
iris images of suspects with an existing database of images in order to determine or confirm
the subject’s identity. They also state that iris scans are quicker and more reliable than
fingerprint scans since it is easier for an individual to obscure or alter their fingers than it is to
alter their eyes.

 How Iris Recognition Works

Iris scanning measures the unique patterns in irises, the colored circles in people’s eyes.
Biometric iris recognition scanners work by illuminating the iris with invisible infrared light to
pick up unique patterns that are not visible to the naked eye. Iris scanners detect and exclude
eyelashes, eyelids, and specular reflections that typically block parts of the iris. The final result
is a set of pixels containing only the iris. Next, the pattern of the eye’s lines and colors are
analyzed to extract a bit pattern that encodes the information in the iris. This bit pattern is
digitized and compared to stored templates in a database for verification (one-to-one template
matching) or identification (one-to-many template matching). 

Iris scanning cameras may be mounted on a wall or other fixed location, or they may be
handheld and portable. Researchers at Carnegie Mellon University are developing long-range
scanners that could even be used to capture images surreptitiously from up to 40-feet away. 
What Kinds of Data Are Collected for Iris Recognition 

Iris scanners collect around 240 biometric features, the amalgamation of which are unique
to every eye. The scanners then create a digital representation of that data. That numeric
representation of information extracted from the iris image is stored in a computer database. 

Iris scanning is sometimes used in conjunction with other biometrics, such as fingerprints
and face recognition.
How Law Enforcement Uses Iris Recognition
  The U.S. military has used iris scanning devices to identify detainees in Iraq and Afghanistan.
For example, the handheld biometrics recorder SEEK II allows military personnel to take iris
scans, fingerprints, and face scans and port the data back to an FBI database in West Virginia in
seconds, even in areas with low connectivity. As is often the case with cutting-edge surveillance
technologies developed for use in foreign battlefields, similar iris scanning technology has since
been deployed by police departments across the U.S. 
The New York City Police Department was among the first police departments to begin using
iris recognition. The department installed BI2 Technologies’ mobile MORIS (Mobile Offender
Recognition and Information System) in the fall of 2010. Although New York City’s use of iris
scanning in jails was supposed to be voluntary, there have been reports of arrestees being held
longer for declining iris photographs. Prisons, such as the Rhode Island Department of
Corrections, have also begun using the technology. An EFF survey of California law enforcement
agencies in 2015 found that sheriff offices in Orange County and Los Angeles County had plans
to implement iris scanning technology.
Iris recognition devices are currently being installed in every sheriff’s department along the
U.S.-Mexico border. The vendor BI2 offered these sheriffs free three-year trials of its stationary
iris capture devices to be used in inmate intake facilities, and it has said it would eventually
provide mobile versions as well. The iris templates generated with the mobile app can be
compared against hundreds of thousands of other iris templates in less than 20 seconds. The
scans will be added to BI2’s private database, which already has close to a million iris
scans collected from over 180 law enforcement jurisdictions across the country. 
The B12 database is housed by a third-party vendor in an undisclosed location in San Antonio,
Texas, and in three other disaster backup facilities. A BI2 executive told The Intercept that it is
6. GRAPHOLOGY

The analysis of handwriting has been studied for almost four hundred years. In 1622,
the first person that carried out systematic and practical observations on the way of
handwriting was Camillo Baldi. He published the book named ‘Treated how, by a letter missive,
one recognizes the writer´s nature and qualities’, which is considered the first known
graphological essay in the world.1 In 1897, the term “graphology” was coined by Abb Jean-
Hippolyte Michon in Paris by combining two Greek words graphe in, to write and logos, science.
He was the founder of The Society of Graphology and the first person to give scientific grounds
to the handwriting analysis. The Michon´s work was continued by one of his pupils, J. Crepieux-
Jamin. He put of the order in Michon´s work and divided the writing into 7basic elements:
speed, pressure, form, dimension, continuity, direction, and order.2 Handwriting analysis is an
operation that has been carried out for decades to centuries. But its effectiveness when
analyzing the behavior and personality traits of an individual is still a debate from old
days.3 Forensic graphology is the study of handwriting. It is unique meaning and has many
things for the study. It is applied when there are a ransom notes, signatures, letters and other
bad things which are not found in common scenario. Forensic document examination is
requested in the event of a formal debunking of signatures fixed on contracts, in civil law cases,
and in all those cases in which handwriting is applied in order to commit a crime for which it
becomes necessary to identify the authorship/ownership of a piece of handwriting, this same
action obtruding criminal liability and responsibility.

Forensic investigators USE HANDWRITING PATTERN/TECHNOLOGY TO DETERMINE

PERSONALITY TRAITS OF AN INDIVIDUAL. In different agencies use graphology for checking
application for jobs, recruitment procedure, compatibility for marriage, career guidance,
motivates different employees and child behavior and development. It is also stated that the
social& economic status, environment, psychological/mental health, and cognitive
development are also a part of a person’s intensions to participate in aberrant behavior. Some
biological, psychological, and sociological theories and concept have been used as principal
classifications to explain interpretations and discussion of aberrant behavior.3 To determine
handwriting traits that correspond to particular characteristics, forensic experts study large
portions of handwriting samples from known/control and unknown/suspect sources. Apart
from examination of handwriting samples by a person, there have been numerous
technologies/ methods developed to help handwriting experts with carrying out this mind-
numbing task. Various studies have validated handwriting analysis as a method of assessment
of personality, using various experiments and scientific techniques. Integrative graphology
focuses on various strokes and their relation to personality of an individual. Holistic graphology
is based on form, movement during writing, and use of space. 4 There have been a number of
studies on handwriting and effect of gender available. Uniformly the scientific research
indicates that gender can be determined at a significant level in handwriting study for
assessment of personality. The published studies on ethnicity of individual, his/her
race, age, nationality, gender, weight, height, and their relationship to handwriting have had
mixed results.

Methodology
Basically there are two ways to carry out the handwriting analysis with the intend to determine
personality traits through it and these are:

I. Manual way
II. Automatic handwriting analysis through computer

Manual analysis

The graphology or handwriting analysis through manual way is done simply by the graphologist
in which he/she analyze the given handwriting by using the various tools such as magnifying
glass etc. and observe the various features of handwriting and then determine the personality
of the writer on the basis of these features. 7 Manual analysis relies on the knowledge and
observation of the graphologist. After the handwriting sample is obtained, the graphologist
looks for the various handwriting features and tries to identify them to analyze the writer’s
personality, few of the important features are as follows:

a. Word Spacing
b. Line Spacing
c. Page Margins
d. Alignment
e. Pen Pressure
f. Slant
g. Size and Position of Letters
h. Movement
i. Headings
j. Tendencies towards right or left
k. Observing the Position as well as Shape of i-dots
l. Observing the Position as well as Shape of T-bars

All these features have their significant meaning and hence should be carefully observed and
identified as it will help in determining the personality of the writer as a whole.

SAMPLE Discussion
The various handwriting features can be analyzed in a given handwriting sample and they can
tell a lot about the writer’s personality if they are observed carefully. Few of these features and
their corresponding meaning in terms of describing one’s personality traits are as follows:

Word spacing

It is indicated by observing the width of one letter in handwriting. It is the easiest way to judge
a person by looking at narrow or wide space between the words.

a. If there is wide space found between the words then the writer usually avoids the crowd
and is comfortable in spending some alone time.
b. If there is narrow space found between the words then the writer may be intrusive and
usually found to be enjoying in the crowd.7

Line spacing

Line spacing can be better observed if the handwriting samples are taken on a blank (or
unlined) sheet of paper. It has been found that:

i. Those who have wide spaced lines in their handwriting are usually open minded persons
and have an attitude to take a stand back.
ii. Those who have narrow spaced lines in their handwriting are usually narrow minded
persons and are used to react when close to the action.7

Page margins

The margins should not be neglected while analyzing a handwriting since they can provide a lot
of information, such as:

a. The left margin indicates towards the roots or family.

b. The right margin indicates towards the other people in a person’s life as well as future.
c. The top of the page indicates towards the goals and ambitions.
d. The foot of the page indicates towards the energy, practical approach as well as instincts
of a person.

A wide left margin in handwriting indicates that the writer likes moving on, however a narrow
one indicates towards the cautious behavior and to avoid being pushed before the person is
ready to do a task. A wide right margin in handwriting indicates that the writer has a fear of the
unknown, however a narrow one indicates towards the eagerness and impatience to do the
things.

7. DNA FINGERPRINTING
DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory technique used to establish a link between biological
evidence and a suspect in a criminal investigation. A DNA sample taken from a crime scene is
compared with a DNA sample from a suspect. If the two DNA profiles are a match, then the
evidence came from that suspect. Conversely, if the two DNA profiles do not match, then the
evidence cannot have come from the suspect. DNA fingerprinting is also used to establish
paternity.

8. GAIT ANALYSIS
Gait analysis is known as 'the systematic study of human locomotion.' Forensic gait
analysis or forensic gait comparison is defined as 'THE ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION OF THE
GAIT PATTERNS AND FEATURES OF THE PERSON/SUSPECT AND COMPARING THESE FEATURES
WITH THE SCENE OF CRIME EVIDENCE FOR CRIMINAL/PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION.' In other
words, forensic gait analysis may be defined as a contributor to the identification process
rather than one of the methods of identification as individualization of the gait of a person has
not yet been fully scientifically proved.' The forensic gait analysis's general source or evidence
comprises the series of footprints found at the crime scene and the closed-circuit television
camera (CCTV) footage. Footprints are one of the pieces of evidence encountered at the crime
scene. Footprints can be recovered in the form of bare prints, shoeprints as well as a series of
imprints. Footprints can be encountered in several types of cases and crime scenes such as HBT
(House Break-in and Theft), robbery, sexual assaults, hit and run, shoplifting, homicides,
kidnapping, etc. The science of footprints and gait analysis is a part of an emerging sub-
discipline of forensic science known as forensic podiatry. Forensic podiatry is "the application of
podiatric knowledge and experience in forensic investigations. It shows the association of an
individual with a scene of a crime, or to answer any other legal question concerned with the
foot or footwear that requires knowledge of the functioning foot." The principles and
knowledge of forensic podiatry help the investigating officers and crime scene investigators
when they are involved with the foot, footwear, and/or gait-related evidence at the crime
scene. This knowledge can further establish the suspect's physical or biological profile for
individualization and identification. 
Meanwhile, an investigating officer is always on the look-out for evidence that will link the
suspect to the scene of the crime. In recent times, gait analysis has emerged as an important
parameter that can help in personal identification during forensic examinations. The advent of
CCTV cameras and other surveillance means has generated interest in the practice and research
related to forensic gait analysis and its possible use in human individualization. In 1839, in
London, gait analysis entered into the court in the case of Thomas Jackson; he was identified by
the witness due to his bowed left leg and walking with a limp. However, for the very first time,
the forensic gait analysis was used as a means of admissible evidence/scientific evidence in the
Old Bailey Central Criminal Court, London, UK, in the case of R v. Saunders by the U.K. based
forensic podiatrist, Dr. Haydn Kelly., although, the method of forensic gait analysis remains
questionable as far as the reliability and accuracy are concerned.
Limitations of forensic gait analysis and criticism about its admissibility in the court of law
In the present era, due to the paradigm shift in forensic science, there is an increased focus
on the reliability, accuracy, quality of evidence, and its admissibility in the court of law. Forensic
gait analysis has also witnessed criticism regarding its reproducibility, reliability, lack of proper
standards, and rules of forensic practice. 
Gait pattern or walking pattern is highly affected by various parameters mentioned above,
so it brings the investigating officer into a situation that requires consideration of several
factors, which is practically not possible to identify the single suspect. Another limitation of gait
pattern analysis is that we do not have databases that can be used for gait comparison. Gait
pattern shows high intra-individual variability. It means that a person's gait is highly variable on
different occasions and scenarios, which makes it difficult to identify the person. Moreover, the
experts are not following any prescribed standard protocol for the analysis of gait;
consequently, there are variations in the methodology used for the analysis, which creates
confusion amongst the judges and jury to decide the cases based on this parameter of
identification.

9. POROSCOPY
Poroscopy is a METHOD OF PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION THROUGH THE COMPARISON OF
THE IMPRESSIONS OF SWEAT PORES (present on friction ridges of palmar and plantar
surfaces). The method was discovered and developed by Edmond Locard in 1912. Locard
observed that like the ridge characteristics, the pores are also permanent, immutable and
individual, and these are useful to establish the identity or otherwise of individuals when
available ridges do not provide sufficient ridge characteristics.
The case of Boudet and Simonin (1) solved by Locard on the basis of the impressions of pores
in the latent prints opened a new chapter in the science of identification (please click here for
more information on this case), but this technique could not gain much popularity except for a
few stray works here and there (2-6) most likely due to the following probable reasons:-
a) Lack of sufficient and systematic data about the various aspects of sweat pores, such as
shape, size, position and interspacing frequency etc.
b) The sweat pores may not always appear in latent/inked impressions and their microscopic
nature restricts the finger print experts to give proper attention to examine their details and to
use them for identification purposes.
Keeping these factors in view in the present work, an intensive study of sweat pores in the
inked and latent prints has been carried out. Shape, size, position, interspacing and frequency
of pores in different fingerprints of hundred individuals of Palmar surface have been studied
and findings are compared with the corresponding latent prints. The effect of various surfaces
and developing methods for latent prints have also been studied vis-a-vis any variations in the
pores.
10. PODOSCOPY
Podoscopy –(derived from the Greek word “podo”, the foot, and “skopien” to examine). It is
the study of the prints of the soles of the feet
11. RIDGEOLOGY
The term “ridgeology” was coined by Sergeant David Ashbaugh to describe the scientific
evaluation process used for friction ridge identifications.
It refers to a forensic identification science associated with all of the ridges on the volar
areas and not just on the finger tips (as Dactyloscopy implies).
CHAPTER III: DACTYLOSCOPY – THE SCIENCE OF FINGERPRINTING

FINGERPRINTING (DACTYLOSCOPY)

NATURE OF FINGERPRINTS

A FINGERPRINT is a composite of the ridge outlines which appears on the skin surface of the bulbs on
the inside of the end of joints of the fingers and thumbs.

HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS INVOLVING FINGERPRINTS

1. IN CHINA, fingerprint is called “Hua Chi”. The value of fingerprints for purposes of identification was
found on a Chinese clay seal made not later than the 3rd century B.C.

2. IN ENGLAND, Thomas Bewick, an English engraver, author, and naturalist engraved the patterns of
his own fingers on every wood-work he had finished to serve as his mark so as to establish its
genuineness.

Personalities on Dactyloscopy

3. 1684-NEHEMIAH GREW published a report which was read before the royal society of London,
England. He described the ridges and pores of the hands and feet.

4. 1685-G. BIDLOO published a treaty describing sweat pores and ridges.

5. 1685-Midle wrote a book, “Human Anatomy,” in which he included a drawing of the thumb print
showing the ridge configuration of the whorl pattern.

6. 1686-PROFESSOR MARCELO MALPIGHI, an Italian anatomist (GRANDFATHER OF DACTYLOSCOPY

according to Dr. Edmond Locard – “Father of Poroscopy”), commented in his writings on elevated
ridges on the fingertips and alluded to diverse figures on palmar surfaces.

7. 1751-Hintzo wrote on the ridge formation, but dealt with the subject from the viewpoint of anatomy
rather than identification.

8. 1764-Albinus followed along the same lines as Hintzo had written.

9. 1788-J.C.A. Mayer stated in his book (Anatomische Kupfertafein Nebst Dazu Geharigen) that although
the arrangement of the skin ridges is never duplicated in two persons, nevertheless, the similarities are
closer among some individuals.

10. 1823-JOHANNES EVANGELIST PURKINJE, (FATHER OF DACTYLOCOSPY) a Czechoslovakian professor

of anatomy at the University of Breslau, published a thesis in Latin (Commentio de Examine Physiogico
Organi Visus Et systematis Cutansi – A Commentary of the Physiological Examination System: Dec. 22,
1823, Breslau, Germany) describing the ridges, giving them names and established certain rules for
classification (nine groups). He involves vague differentiation of fingerprints or use them for
identification.

11. 1856-HERMAN WELCKER took the prints of his own palm. In 1897, (forty one years later) he printed
the same palm to prove that the prints do not change. (principle of permanency).

12. 1883-Kollman, an anthropologist who wrote his book on ridges and pores. He did not associate
fingerprints with identification.

13. 1858-SIR WILLIAM J. HERSCHEL (FATHER OF CHIROSCOPY), in Hoogly, district of Bengal, India, he
used fingerprints in India to prevent fraudulent collection of army pay account and for identification
of other documents. He printed the palms of natives in order to avoid impersonation among laborers.
Prints of the entire palms were used instead of signatures. The first person Herschel printed appears to
have been one RAJYADHAR KONAI.

14. 1880-DR. HENRY FAULDS, an English (Scottish) doctor stationed in Tokyo, Japan, wrote a letter to
the English publication, “NATURE” – “On the Skin Furrows of the Hand”, (dtd Oct. 28, 1880) on the
practical use of fingerprints for the identification of criminals. He recommended the use of a thin film of
printers ink as a transfer medium and is generally used today.
15. 1880-SIR FRANCIS GALTON, a noted British anthropologist and a cousin of scientist Charles Darwin
began observation which led to the publication in 1882 of his book “Fingerprints.” Galton’s studies
established the individuality of classifying fingerprint patterns.

16. 1882-GILBERT THOMPSON, a U.S. geological surveyor in charge of a field project in New Mexico
used his own fingerprints in commissary orders to prevent forgery.

17. ISAIAH WEST TABER – A photographer in San Francisco advocated the use of the system for the
registration of the immigrant Chinese.

18. 1883-An episode in Mark Twain’s life on the Mississippi relates to the identification of a murderer by
his thumbprint.

19. TWAIN (SAMUEL L. CLEMENS) further developed his theme. Eleven (11) years later, he causes the
publication of “Puddin Head Wilson”, a novel based on dramatic fingerprint identification demonstrated
during a court trial. His story pointed out the infallibility of fingerprint identification.

20. 1888-SIR EDWARD RICHARD HENRY, succeeded Sir William J. Herschel at his post in India. He
became interested in fingerprints and devised a classification of his own and published his work in book
form and titled it “Classification and Uses of Fingerprints.”

21. 1889-Sir Richard Henry at Dove, England read a paper detailing his system before the British
association for Advancement of Science.

22. 1891-JUAN VUCETICH, an Argentinean police official, installed fingerprints files as an official means
of criminal identification; based his system of the pattern typed by Sir Francis Galton; and he also
claimed the first official criminal identification by means of fingerprints left at the scene of crime.

In 1892, at La Piata, Argentina, a woman named Rojas who had murdered her two sons and had cut her
own throat, though not fatal, blamed the attack on a neighbor. Bloody fingerprints on a door post were
identified by Vucetich as those of the woman herself which led to her confession.

24. 1892-Sir Francis Galton, an English Biologist, wrote his first textbook. He devised a practical system
of classification and filing. 1894-Sir Francis Galton’s report on fingerprint as a method of identification,
along with his system, was read at Asquith Committee of London, England. His system was officially
adopted on February 12, 1894.

25. 1900-ALPHONSE BERTILLON’S SYSTEM OF BODY MEASUREMENT HAD BY THIS TIME SPREAD
THROUGHOUT THE WORLD.

26. 1901-SIR EDWARD RICHARD HENRY WAS APPOINTED ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER AT SCOTLAND
YARD. His system was so applicable that Henry emerged as the “FATHER OF FINGERPRINTS,” at least as
the first man to successfully apply fingerprints for identification. 1901-MARKED THE OFFICIAL
INTRODUCTION OF FINGERPRINTING FOR CRIMINAL IDENTIFICATION IN ENGLAND AND WALES.

27. The system employed was developed from Galton’s observation and devised by Edward Richard
Henry, the Inspector-General of Police in Bengal, India. He later became commissioner of London’s
Metropolitan Police.

28. 1914-Fingerprints were officially adopted in France, replacing Bertillonage.

29. 1882-GILBERT THOMPSON of the Us Geodetic survey used thumb print for camp orders on an
expedition to New Mexico. This was not official but it was proven useful (the record was dated Aug. 8,
1882).

30. 1902-Sir Henry P. Forest, chief Medical examiner of New York Civil Service Commission and an
American preacher in fingerprint science in the US for the New York Civil Service commission to prevent
applicants from having betterqualified persons to take the test for them.

31. The New York Civil Service Commission, on Dec. 19, 1902 required all civil service applicants to be
fingerprinted. Dr. Henry P. Forest, put the system into practice.

32. 1903-New York State Prison in Albany claims the first practical, systematic use of fingerprints in the
US to identify criminals.

33. 1903-Fingerprints identification was adopted in the following penitentiaries: Singing Sing, Napanoch,
Auborn and Clinton prisons
34. Captain James Parke of the institution installed the identification system where the fingerprints of
prisoners were taken and classified and the fingerprint system was officially adopted in June of the year.
Today, New York State uses the American system that is similar to the Henry System and represents the
system initiated by Capt. Parke in 1903.

35. 1904-Maj. R. Mccloughry, the warden of the Federal Penitentiary of Leavenworth when the office of
the Atty. General of the U.S. granted permission to establish a fingerprint bureau therein. It was the first
national government use of fingerprints.

36. 1904-John Kenneth Ferrer (Perrier) of the Fingerprint Branch of the New Scotland Yard, attended the
St. Louis Missouri Worlds Fair. He had been assigned to guard the British Crown Jewels. American police
officials became interested in fingerprint through him and he became their instructor.

37. 1904-The City of St. Louis Missouri, became the first city to adopt fingerprint. The police department
officials adopted the system on October 29, 1904.

38. 1905-Fingerpritning was officially adopted by the U.S. Army. It was known as the first military use of
fingerprint.

39. 1907-Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the U.S. Navy (January 11, 1907).

40. 1908-Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the U.S. Marine Corps.

41. 1910-Frederick A. Brayley published what appears to be the first American book in fingerprints.

42. 1911-The State of Illinois, made the first criminal conviction based solely upon fingerprint evidence.
It was known as the first judicial ruling on such evidence, (People vs Jennings, 252 Illinois 543-96 NE
1007, 43 LRA (NS) 1206 for 1991).

43. 1915-The International Association for Criminal Identification was founded. The word “criminal” was
later dropped from the Association’s name. It is the first organized body of professional identification
experts.

44. 1916-The Institution of Applied Science established at Chicago, Illinois was the first school to teach
fingerprint identification (June 16, 1916).

45. 1916-Frederick Kuhne published a book entitled “The Fingerprint Instructor,” which probably the
first authoritative book in fingerprint to be circulated in the U.S. Munn and Co., served as the publisher.

46. 1919-Marked the publication of “Fingerprint and Identification Magazine” (Chicago). The first
monthly journal devoted exclusively to fingerprint science, (July 1919).

47. 1920-The Exceptional Arch, a new pattern, was adapted to Henry’s system by American experts. The
pattern was added after the study made by the assembly members at annual convention of the
International Association for Identification in 1920.

48. 1922-Haken Jersengen, the sub-director of police in Copenhagen, Denmark introduced first a long
distance identification to U.S. at a police conference here. The method was adopted and published in a
magazine entitled “Publications” of the International Police Conference, (New York City Police
Department, 1932).

49. Mary K. Holland – the first American Instructress in Dactyloscopy.

50. 1924-The Identification Division of the FBI was established after J. Edgar Hoover was appointed
Director.

51. 1924-The book entitled “Single Fingerprint System” by T.K. Larson, was first published in U.S.,
(Berkley, Police Monograph Series) D. Application and Co., New York City.

52. 1924-The First National Bureau of Identification was created by the act of Congress. The bureau was
established within the U.S. DOJ (Washington DC).

53. 1925-Harry J. Myers II installed the first official fact fingerprint system for infants in Jewish Maternity
Hospital in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

54. 1925-The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania used compulsory foot and fingerprinting of new born
infants and mothers which was enacted into law by Act of General Assembly as approved on April 20,
1925.
55. 1932-The International Exchange of Fingerprint date was initiated with a number of other nations on
February 15, 1932.

56. 1933-The Bureau of Identification, U.S. Department of Justice, adopted the single fingerprint
identification system. The first national use of single print for identification purposes for certain crimes
only, (Feb. 1933).

57. 1933-Latent fingerprints section, for making technical examination of latent prints or have inked
prints on an individual basis was instituted on November 10, 1933. The Civil Identification on Section
was established.

58. 1937-The Institute of Applied Science installed Photographic and Firearms Identification (Forensic
Ballistics) laboratories. The institute was the first private school in U.S. which installed laboratories for
instructional purposes only.

59. 1938-A book by Harry J. Myers II, “History of Identification of fingerprints in U.S.” was published in
Fingerprint and Identification Magazine (Chicago, Illinois, Vol. 20, no. 4, Oct. 1938).

60. 1946-the 100th millionth fingerprint card was received in the identification division of the FBI. The
total grew to 152 million in May 11, 1959.

61. 1967-“Minutiae” was initiated by the FBI, a computerized scanning equipment to read and record
fingerprint identifying characteristics.

62. 1972-the prototype automatic fingerprint reader was delivered.

63. 1973-implementation of the first phase of the automated Identification System (AIS-1), which was to
establish the database consisting of the name, description, and criminal record of all first offenders with
birthdates of 1956.

64. 1978-Journal of Forensic Science – reported that certain properties of perspiration and body oils
contained in latent print residue will luminesce without pre-treatment and to a degree that photographs
could be taken when activated by continuous Argon-ION Laser. Hence, the FBI’s Latent Print Detection
System was put into use.

65. 1979-AIS-2 replaced AIS-1. This phase involved the automated searching by name and other
descriptor information of incoming fingerprint cards against the database.

66. 1979 (Oct. 17, 1979)-A latent fingerprint was developed and lifted from the hand of a victim in
Miami, Florida murder resulting in identifying the suspect. This was the first known case where a
fingerprint from a human skin was used in the identification, prosecution and conviction of a
perpetrator of a crime.

67. 1982-Missing Children Act was signed into law which requires the Attorney General to acquire,
collect, classify, and preserve any information which would assist in the location of any missing person
(including an unemancipated person as defined by the laws of the place of residence of such person) or
assist in the identification of any deceased individual who have not been identified.

68. 1983-Completion of the conversion of the FBI criminal fingerpint searching from manual to
automated searching. Also, AIS records became available by mail upon request of the National Crime
Information Center’s (NCIC’s) interstate identification index (III) – an interstate record exchange.

69. 1984-AIS records became available “ON-LINE” through the NCIC program. Records from the NCIC
and AIS, and participating state and local telecommunication networks became available w/in seconds
to authorized criminal justice agencies.

70. 1985 (Jan. 2) – a contract was awarded for building the final phase of the Identification Division
Automated System (IDAS).

71. 1989-IDAS implementation. Its features are: integrated document transport equipment; on-line
automated technical fingerprint search; and simplified processing flow. All, for expeditious response
time of fingerprint cards.

72. 1900-Mr. Jones was the first to teach fingerprints in the Philippines in the Phil. Constabulary.

73. 1918-The Bureau of Prisons records show that carpetas (commitment and conviction records)
already bear fingerprints.
74. Under the management of Lt. Asa N. Darby during the American occupation in the Philippines, a
modern and complete fingerprint file has been established for the Philippine commonwealth.

75. 1937-The first Filipino fingerprint technician employed by the Phil. Constabulary was Mr. Generoso
Reyes. Capt. Thomas Dugan of New York City Police Department and Mr. Flaviano C. Gurrero of the
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) gave the first examinations in fingerprints.

76. 1933-The first conviction based on fingerprints was handed by the Supreme Court of the Phil. in the
case People vs. Medina and this case is considered the leading judicial decision in the Philippine
jurisprudence concerning fingerprinting (December 23).

77. The science of fingerprinting was first offered as a subject in the Philippines through the effort of the
Plaridel Educational Institution.

DACTYLOSCOPY

Definition

1. DACTYLOSCOPY – (derived from the Latin words Dactyl = finger and Skopien – to
study or examine) is the practical application of the science of fingerprints.
2. DACTYLOGRAPHY – is the scientific study of fingerprint as a means of
identification.
3. DACTYLOMANCY – is the scientific study of fingerprint for purposes of personality
interpretation.
4. DERMATOGLYPHICS = is the science which deals with the study of skin pattern. It
is derived from two Greek words, Derma which means Skin and Glype which means
Carve.

Basic Principles of Fingerprint

1. Individuality
No two persons have the same fingerprint (based on Statistic Probability)
2. Infallibility
That fingerprint is a positive and reliable means of identification. It cannot be
easily be forged.
3. Constancy or permanency
That the friction ridge once fully developed its arrangement will remains the same
throughout man’s life.

Fingerprints
Is an impression design by the first joint of the fingers and thumb on smooth
surface through the media of ink, sweat or any substance capable of producing visibility.

Related Sciences to the Study of Fingerprint:

1. Chiroscopy – ( Greek word “ Cheir” – a hand, “Skopien” –to examine) is the science
which deals with the study of the prints of the palms of the hand.
2. Podoscopy – ( Greek word “Podo” – the foot, and Skopien – to examine)is the
science which deals with the study of the footprints.
3. Poroscopy – (Greek word “poros” – a pare, and “Skopien” – to examine) is the
scientific study of the arrangement of the sweat pores. (Edmond Locard- Father of
Poroscopy)

Phalange = is the skeletal finger covered with friction skin. It is made up of three bones.
a. Basal or proximal phalange – it is located at the base of the finger nearest the
palm.
b. Middle phalange = the next and above the basal done.
c. Terminal phalange = the particular bone covered with friction skin, having all
the different types of fingerprint patterns and it is located near the tip of the
finger.

Friction Skin – is an epidermal hairless skin found on the ventral or lower surface of
the hands and feet covered with ridges and furrows.(Also called as Papillary skin).
Components of the Friction Skin
1. Ridge surface
a. Ridge – the elevated or hill like structure/ the black lines with tiny white dots.
b.  Furrow – the depressed or canal like structure/ the white space between        
ridges.
2. Sweat pores – the tiny opening/ the tiny white dots.
3. Sweat duct – the passage way.
4. Sweat glands – the producers of sweat.

Fundamental Layers of the Friction Skin

1. Epidermis – the outermost layer
a. Stratum Corneum,
b. Stratum mucosum
2. Dermis – the inner layer containing the blood vessel, dermal papillae, various glands
and nerves.

Ridge Formation – (Ridges starts to form in the fingers and thumb during the 3rd to 4th
months of the fetus life.)
Dermal Papillae = are irregular pegs composed of delicate connective tissue
protruding and forming the ridges of the skin on the fingers, palms, toes and soles of the
feet.
Ridge Destruction – destruction of the friction skin can either be temporary or
permanent. Generally temporary destruction occur when only the epidermis layer of the
friction skin has been damage, while permanent damage can be injected to the friction
skin due to damage to the dermis layer.

General Rules on Ridge Destruction

a. Destruction of the Epidermis – temporary, dermis – permanent damage.
b. Cut == a depth of more than 1 mm will constitute permanent scar.
CHAPTER IV – FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

Fingerprints are unique patterns, made by friction ridges (raised) and furrows (recessed), which
appear on the pads of the fingers and thumbs. Prints from palms, toes and feet are also unique;
however, these are used less often for identification, so this guide focuses on prints from the fingers and
thumbs.

The fingerprint pattern, such as the print left when an inked finger is pressed onto paper, is that of
the friction ridges on that particular finger. Friction ridge patterns are grouped into three distinct types
—loops, whorls, and arches—each with unique variations, depending on the shape and relationship of
the ridges:

I. LOOPS (60 %)

- prints that recurve back on themselves to form a loop shape. Divided into radial loops (pointing toward
the radius bone, or thumb) and ulnar loops (pointing toward the ulna bone, or pinky).

Elements:

 CORE
 DELTA
 SUFFICIENT RECURVE
(At least 1 ridge count)

1. RADIAL LOOP

A type of pattern in which the slanting ridge flows towards the thumb finger
2. ULNAR LOOP

The slanting ridge flows towards the little finger

II. ARCHES (5 %)

- create a wave-like pattern and include plain arches and tented arches. Tented arches rise to a sharper
point than plain arches. Arches make up about five percent of all pattern types.

1. PLAIN ARCH

- ridges flow from one side to the other side with a slight raise at the center (no delta and core)
2. TENTED ARCH

- having an upthrust or an incomplete loop form

Three types of Tented Arch:

 Tented with angle – ridges at the center form a definite angle of at least ninety degrees, thus
resembling a tent.
 Tended resembling a loop – the type approaching the loop pattern andn possessing two of the
basic or essential characteristics of the loop but lacking the third.
 Tented with up thrust – the type in which one or more ridges at the center form an upthrust
III. WHORLS (35 %)

- form circular or spiral patterns, like tiny whirlpools. There are four groups of whorls: plain (concentric
circles), central pocket loop (a loop with a whorl at the end), double loop (two loops that create an S-like
pattern) and accidental loop (irregular shaped). Whorls make up about 35 percent of pattern types.

1. PLAIN WHORL

 A complete circuit
 Two deltas
 At least 1 circulating ridge is crossed or touched by an imaginary line passing through two deltas
2. CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL

 Two deltas
 At least one obstruction ridge or recurving ridge at right angle
 No recurving ridge within the pattern area is crossed or touched by an imaginary line drawn
between two deltas

3. DOUBLE LOOP WHORL

 Two separate loop formation

 Two separate or distinct sets of shoulder
 Two deltas
4. ACCIDENTAL LOOP WHORL

 Patterns in which it is a combination of two different types of pattern

 Two or more deltas and core
 It must be a combination of two different pattern except plain arch

RULES IN LOCATING THE DELTA AND THE CORE