Dynamics

Dynamics is concerned with problems involving motion.

Force, motion and mass

 When you push or pull an object, you are exerting a force on the object.
This force can change dimensions of bodies in a reproducible way. Therefore it takes the
same force to stretch a spring by the same length. Thus a spring balance can be used to
measure force. Laboratory spring balances are often called newton balances because the
SI unit of force is the newton.
 Forces are vector quantities; they have both magnitude and direction. A number of
forces acting on a body are often shown by means of a force diagram drawn to
scale, in which the forces are represented by lines of length proportional to the
magnitude of the force, and in the appropriate direction.
 The combined effect of several forces acting on a body is known as the resultant
force
Aristotle a Greek Philosopher believed that the natural state of a body was a state of rest,
and that a force was necessary to make it move and to keep it moving. This argument
suggests that the greater the force, the greater the speed of the body.
Later Galileo questioned Aristotle’s idea and suggested that motion at a constant speed
could be just as natural a state as the state of rest. He then introduced an understanding
of the effect of friction on motion.
Let’s imagine a heavy box being pushed along a rough floor at constant speed. This may
take a considerable force. The force required can be reduced if the floor is made smooth
and polished, and reduced even more if a lubricant such as grease is applied between the
box and floor. This implies that as friction is reduced to a vanishingly small value, the
force required to push the box at constant speed is also vanishingly small.
Thus Galileo realized that the force of friction was a force that opposed the pushing
force.
When an object moves at constant speed, the pushing force is exactly equal to the
frictional force, but in the opposite direction, so that there is a net force of zero
acting on the box.

Newton’s laws of motion

Sir Isaac Newton developed Galileo’s ideas to come up with a theory of motion,
expressed in his three laws of motion.

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Newton’s first law of motion
This law re – states Galileo’s deduction about the natural state of a body.
The law states that:
Every body continues in its state of rest, or with uniform velocity, unless acted upon by a
resultant force.
This law tells us the effect of a force that it disturbs the state of rest or velocity of a body
and is called the law of inertia.
Definition: Inertia is the property of a body to stay in a state of rest or uniform velocity.
From this Law force is the action which is able to create or change motion

Newton’s second law of motion

This law tells us what happens if a force is exerted on a body. It causes a change in
velocity, it causes a body at rest to move, or causes a moving body to speed up or slow
down or change direction.
Recall that a change in velocity with time is acceleration. Thus this law relates the
magnitude of this acceleration to the force applied and also introduces the idea of mass
of a body.
Mass is a measure of the inertia of a body to change in velocity. It is in fact a
property of a body that resists change in motion. The bigger the mass, the more
difficult it is to change its state of rest or velocity.
The law state that:
For a body of constant mass, its acceleration is directly proportional to the resultant
force applied to it and takes place in the direction of the force.
Or
The net force acting on a body is proportional to the rate of change of its momentum.
The net force and the change in momentum are in the same direction.
In a word equation;
Force = mass x acceleration
In symbols, F = ma
Where F is the resultant or net force, m is the mass and a is the acceleration.
Note that we have made the constant of proportionality equal to unity by choosing
quantities with units which will give us the above simple relation.
In SI units, the force F is in newtons (N), the mass m in kilograms (kg) and the
acceleration a in meters (seconds)-2 (ms-2)
Definition: One newton is defined as the force which will give a 1kg mass an
acceleration of 1ms-2 in the direction of the force.

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Newton’s third law
When you push a supermarket trolley, the trolley experiences a force. The trolley applies
an equal and opposite force on you.
Newton understood that the body on which the force is exerted applies another force
back on the body which is applying the force. When body A applies a force on body B
then B applies an equal and opposite force on body A.
Newton’s third law states that:
Whenever one body exerts a force on another, the second body exerts an equal and
opposite force on the first.
Or
To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. But this statement does not
highlight the very important point that the action force and the reaction force act on
different objects.
This law has application in everyday life. For
example we walk because of this law. When
you take a step forward, your foot presses
against the ground. The ground then exerts an
equal and opposite force on you. This is the
force on you which propels you in your path.
Space rockets work because of the same law.
To expel the exhaust gases from the rocket,
the rocket exerts a force on the gases. The
gases exert an equal and opposite force on the
rocket, accelerating it forward as shown
besides.
Trial examples
1. A force of 5.0N is applied to a body of mass 3.0kg. What is
the acceleration of the body?
2. A stone of mass 50g is accelerated from a catapult to a
speed of 8.0ms-1 from rest over a distance of 30cm. What
average force is applied by rubber of catapult?
3. An object of mass 1.5kg is to be accelerated at 2.2ms-1.
What force is required? [Ans. 3.3N]
4. A car of mass 1.5 x 10 kg, travelling at 80kmh-1, is to be
3

stopped in 11s. What force is required

5. A motorcyclist of mass 60kg rides a bike of mass 40kg. As she sets off from the
lights, the forward force on the bike is 200N. Assume that the net force on the bike
remains constant, calculate the bike’s velocity after 5.0s [Ans. v = 10m s-1]
6. A force 3 N acts on a body of mass 5 kg. Find the acceleration produced.[Ans. 0.6
ms-2]
7. Find the force acting on a body of mass 12 kg and making it to produce an
acceleration of 6 ms-2. [Ans. 72N]

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Mass and weight
We saw that mass is a measure of the amount of matter in a body, and is the property of
a body which resists change in motion.
Also recall that all objects released near the surface of the earth fall with the same
acceleration (the acceleration of free fall) if air resistance is neglected. The force causing
this acceleration is the gravitational attraction of the earth on the object, or the force of
gravity.

The force of gravity which acts on an object is called the weight of the object
W = mg where m is mass of the body, g is acceleration of free fall
The SI unit of weight is newton (N)
g = 9.81N/kg
Thus a mass of 1kg has a weight of 9.81N
Because weight is a force and a force is a vector, then weight is a vector and its
direction is towards the centre of the earth.
A newton balance can be used to measure weight in the laboratory and is calibrated
in newtons but some commercial spring balances are calibrated in kilograms to
measure mass.
Note that objects at rest also have weight. The gravitational attraction on an object
is the same whether it is falling or whether it is resting on say a table.
The fact that an object rests on a table tells us, by Newton’s first law, that the net
resultant force acting on it is zero. So there must be another force acting on the
object which balances its weight. This force is equal in magnitude to weight but
opposite in direction. It is a normal contact force or normal reaction
normal contact force R
The forces act in the same vertical
line, but I have separated them
slightly just for clarity.

weight of book W

Differences between mass and weight

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Non – uniform motion
The velocity of a body falling through a resistive fluid (a liquid or gas) does not increase
indefinitely, but eventually reaches a maximum velocity, called terminal velocity
When the body falls freely, its speed increases uniformly . As the speed increases, the
force due to air resistance increases. When the resistive force has reached a value equal
and opposite to the weight of the falling body, the body no longer accelerates but
continues at uniform velocity. This is a case of motion with non –uniform acceleration
The acceleration starts off with a value of g, but decreases to zero at the time when the
terminal velocity is achieved. Hence rain drops and parachutists are normally travelling
at a constant speed by the time they approach the ground.
A velocity –time graph for a body falling through a resistive fluid is shown below

v /ms-1

vt

vt = terminal velocity

time/s
Note: Terminal velocity depends on the weight and surface area of the object. For
insects, air resistance is much greater than for a human being and so their terminal
velocity is quite low. This is the reason why insects can be swept up several kilometers
into the atmosphere by rising air streams.

Balanced and unbalanced forces

We shall always need a free body diagram in solving problems involving Newton’s
laws.
When handling problems involving Newton’s laws, start by drawing a general sketch of
the situation. Show all the forces acting on the body, both known and unknown with
arrows which represent the forces in approximately the correct direction and
approximately to scale. Label each force with its magnitude or with a symbol if you
don’t know the magnitude. For each force, you must know the cause of the force (eg
gravity, friction etc) and you must also know on what object that force acts and by what
object it is exerted.
This labeled diagram is called a free –body diagram since it detaches the body from the
others in the situation.

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Also recall that F = ma
where F must be the net resultant force according to Newton’s second law
In a system of bodies in equilibrium, it means they are either at rest, or are moving
with uniform speed in a straight line. In this case, the acceleration is zero ,so the
net resultant force is also zero (we say forces are acting on the body in opposite
directions are balanced and cancel each other out)
 If a body acted upon by balanced forces was moving, then the body will
continue to move at a steady (constant) velocity in a straight line.
In other cases where there is no equilibrium, the objects accelerate or decelerates
and therefore the resultant force is not zero (forces are said to be unbalanced). The
direction of acceleration is the direction of the resultant force.
 Note that speed increases when the net resultant force is in the direction of
motion and decreases when the net force is in the opposite direction to
motion.
Imagine throwing an object from a given height to ground, net resultant force and
the motion are towards the ground so speed increases.
If the same object is thrown vertically upwards and the net resultant force is then
down wards and the speed decreases
We normally use positive and negative numbers to show the direction of force,
velocity and acceleration. A common choice of these quantities is positive when
they point to the right.
Whichever case you are dealing with, just remember that forces are vectors. You
will at times have to resolve forces into two components at right angles and then
apply the second law to each set of components separately.
Examples
1. A box of mass 5.0kg is pulled along a horizontal floor by a force p of 25N,
applied at an angle of 20o to the horizontal as shown in the figure below. A
frictional force Fr of 20N acts parallel to the floor. Calculate the acceleration of
the box.
Solution
The free body diagram is shown below
P

R 20o

Fr

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the horizontal component of the pulling force to the right = (25cos 20)N
the frictional force acting to the left = 20N
the resultant force F to the right is thus F = 25cos 20 –20 = 3.5N
from Newton’s second law, F = ma
a= = = 0.70 m s-2
2. A person gardening pushes a lawnmower of mass 18kg at a constant speed. To do
this requires a force P of 80N directly along the handle, which is at an angle of 40o
to the horizontal.
(a) calculate the horizontal retarding force (friction force) on the mower.
(b) If the retarding force were constant, what force, applied along the handle,
would accelerate the mower from rest to 1.2m s-1 in 2.0s?
P
handle
40o

Fr

Solution W = mg = 18 x 9.81 = 176. 58N

(a) R P
At constant speed, a = 0,
resultant force, F = 0
40o horizontal component of P to the
left = P cos 40
80 cos 40 – Fr = 0
Fr

W
Fr = 80cos 40 = 61N
(b) u = 0, v = 1.2 m s-1, t = 2.0s
v = u + at
1.2 = 0 + a×2.0
a = 0.6m s-2
If Fr is constant, Fr = 61N
the resultant force F = P cos 40 – 61
but F = ma = 18 x 0.6 = 10.8N
thus 10.8 = P cos 40 – 61
P = 94N
3. A car of mass 500kg is travelling along a flat road. The forward force provided
between the car tyres and the road is 300N and the air resistance is 200N.
Calculate the acceleration of the car. [Ans. 0.2m s-2]
4. What is the magnitude of the momentum of an electron of mass 9.1 x10 -31kg
travelling with a speed of 7.5 x 106m s-1?

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5. A large stone and a small stone are dropped from the top of a tall building. Which
one will reach the ground first Explain your answer.
Answer. If air resistance is considered, it’s the larger one; its weight is greater,
so it reaches a greater speed before air resistance is sufficient to equal its weight.
6. Skydivers jump from a plane at intervals of a few seconds. If two divers wish to
join up as they fall, the second must catch up with the first.
(a) If one diver is more massive than the other, which should jump first? Use the
idea of terminal velocity to explain your answer.
Answer. The lighter one; smaller weight,lower terminal energy.
(b) If both divers are actually massive, suggest what the second might do to catch
up with the first.
Answer. Turn head –first and pull in his arms and legs to produce a
streamlined shape so as to reduce friction.
7. A sled is accelerating at a rate of 2m s-2 .If the net force is tripled and the mass
doubled, what is the new acceleration of the sled? [Ans. 3m s-2]
8. Luke drops an approximately 5.0kg cat (weight = 50.0N) off the roof of his house
into a swimming pool below. Upon encountering the pool, the cat encounters a
50.0N upwards resistance force (assumed to be constant)
Which one of the velocity –time graphs best describes the motion of the cat?
Support your answer with sound reasoning.
v A v B C
v

0 t 0 0
t t

MOMENTUM
Definition:
The linear momentum of a body is defined as the product of the body’s mass and its
velocity
Mathematically, it is expressed as:
Momentum = Mass x Velocity: In symbols; p=mv
Notice that momentum has:
 magnitude - an amount because it depends on the object’s mass
 direction - because it depends on the velocity of the object
Thus momentum is a vector quantity
The SI unit of momentum is kg m s-1
Since the mass of a body is constant, the momentum of a body is directly proportional to
its velocity. I.e. Momentum  Velocity

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Newton’s second law expressed in terms of momentum
Suppose a force, F, acts on a body of mass, m, for time t and causes its initial velocity,
u, to change to final velocity, v. The momentum changes uniformly from mu to mv in
the time interval, t.
Final momentum - Initial momentum
The rate of change of momentum =
Time taken
mv - mu
=
t
By Newton’s second law, the rate of change of momentum is proportional to the applied
mv - mu m(v - u) v-u
force and hence, F   F = But =a
t t t
The constant of proportionality is made equal to unity
 F = ma .
Note that F represents strictly the resultant force acting on the body

Newton’s laws in terms of momentum

First law
The momentum of a particle remains constant unless an external resultant force acts on
the particle.
If a body maintains its uniform velocity, its momentum is unchanged and if it remains at
rest again its momentum (zero) does not change
Second law
The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the net resultant force and
acts in the direction of the net resultant force.
Third law
Using the idea of force being equal to rate of change of momentum, the third law
relating to action and reaction forces becomes;
The rate of change of momentum due to the action force on one body is equal and
opposite to the rate of change of momentum due to the reaction force on the other body
The action and reaction forces act on each body for the same time t.
Also from F = ma =
F =m =
Hence F is equal and opposite for each body
Therefore when two bodies exert action and reaction forces on each other, their
changes of momentum are equal and opposite.
 The product F is called impulse and is equal to the change in momentum.
Where F is a constant force, and is time for which the force acts on a body.
Impulse of a force on a body = Change in momentum of a body
F = ……….#

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Hence we can define impulse as the product of force and time or the change in
momentum of the body which is acted on by a constant force.
Impulse is a vector quantity; whose direction is the same as that of the force.
It follows from equation (#) that the units of impulse are either newton seconds
(N s) or kg m s-1
Note that because impulse is equal to change in momentum, N s is also a unit of
momentum.
Worked Examples
1. A car of mass 50000kg initially moving at a velocity of 50m/s accelerates to
100m/s in 2 seconds. Calculate the engine force on the car that caused the velocity
change.
Solution: Mass of the car = 50000 kg,
Initial velocity, u = 50 ms-1, Final velocity, v = 100 ms-1, Time, t = 2 s, F = ?
Using, F = ma
(v - u) (100 - 50)
a = = = 25 ms-2
t 2
Now we can now apply the formula the formula
F = ma = 50,000 x 25 = 1 250 000 = 1.25 x 106 N
2. A body of mass 5kg initially moving with a velocity of 2ms-1 is acted upon by a
horizontal force of 15N for 2s .Find the impulse and the final velocity
Solution:
Impulse = F t = m (v – u )
= 15 x 2 = 30Ns
But impulse = change in momentum
30 = 5 (v – 2 )
v = 8 m s-1
3. A car possesses 20 000 units of momentum. What would be the car's new
momentum if ;
(a) its velocity was doubled.
(b) its velocity was tripled.
(c) its mass was doubled (by adding more passengers and a greater load)
(d) both its velocity was doubled and its mass was doubled.
4. Determine the momentum of a;
(a) 60-kg halfback moving eastward at 9 m/s.
(b)1000-kg car moving northward at 20 m/s.
(c)40-kg freshman moving southward at 2 m/s.
5. A golfer hits a ball of mass 45g at a speed of 40m s-1. The golf club is in contact
with the ball for 3.0ms. Calculate the average force exerted by the club on the ball.
6. Some tennis players can serve the ball at a speed of 55 m s-1. The tennis ball has a
mass of 60 g. In an experiment, it is determined that the ball is in contact with the

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racket for 25 ms during the serve. Calculate the average force exerted by the
racket on the ball. [Ans. 130N]
7. A car of mass 1000kg is travelling at a velocity of 10 m s-1. It accelerates for 15s,
reaching a velocity of 24 m s-1. Calculate
(a) the change in the momentum of the car in the 15s period.[Ans.1.4 x104 kg m s-1]
(b) the average force acting on the car as it accelerates. [Ans. 930N]
8. Water pouring from a broken pipe lands on a flat roof. The water is moving at 5.0
m s-1 when it strikes the roof. The water hits the roof at a rate of 10 kg s-1.
Calculate the force of the water hitting the roof. (Assume that the water does not
bounce as it hits the roof. If it did bounce, would your answer be greater or
smaller?) [Ans. 50N (bouncing: greater force because of greater change in
momentum)]

Safety features in vehicles

 When there is a car crash, the car, its contents, and the passengers, decelerate
rapidly. They experience great forces because of the change in momentum, which
can cause injury. If the time taken for the change in momentum on the body is
increased, the forces on the body are reduced too. Seat belts and crumple zones are
designed to reduce the forces on the body if there is a collision. Seat belts stop you
from tumbling around inside the car if there is a collision. However, they are
designed to stretch a bit in a collision. This increases the time taken for the body’s
momentum to reach zero, so reduces the forces on it.
 The same happens to eggs in a car with shock absorbers. They do not break when
the car runs over a hump for the same reason above
Conservation of linear momentum
Recall newtons third law of motion which states that: To every action there is an equal
but opposite reaction.
For example, a glass block placed on a table,
exerts a force equal to its weight on to the table
top. This force is called action. At the same
time the table top exerts an equal force on to the
glass block in the opposite direction. This force
acting in the opposite direction is called
reaction.
Note: - Action = Reaction
- Action and reaction act on different bodies.
- The two forces are in opposite directions.
- The net resultant force on the glass block is zero

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Newton’s third law leads to conservation of momentum
Suppose two particles exert some sort of force on each other. If the first particle exerts a
force F on the second particle, by Newton’s third law the second particle must exert a
force –F
F
F
The minus sign indicates that the forces are in opposite directions.
If we express the law in terms of momentum; the change of momentum of the second
particle as a result of the force exerted on it by the first is equal and opposite to change
of momentum of the first particle as a result of the force exerted on it by the second.
Thus the changes of momentum of the individual particles cancel out, and the
momentum of the system of two particles remains constant. The particles have merely
exchanged some momentum.
The situation above can be expressed by the equation
p = p1 +p2 = constant
where p is the total momentum, and p1 and p2 are individual momenta
Therefore the total momentum remains constant. This is called the principle of
conservation of momentum.

The principle of conservation of momentum states that;

If no external (dissipative) force acts on a system of interacting bodies, the total linear
momentum of the system remains constant or is conserved.
Or The total linear momentum of a system of interacting bodies, on which no external
force acts remains constant.
Or The total momentum of an isolated system of interacting bodies is constant.
Note: A system on which no external force acts is called an isolated system
Collisions
In our daily lives we witness collisions without really thinking about them. In some
collisions, objects collide and stick together so that they travel together after impact e.g.
collision between an arrow and a target. In other collisions like that between a tennis ball
and a racket, the objects collide and bounce so that they move away with two different
velocities.
Consider the two particles colliding as shown below

u1 v1 v2
u2
m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2

Before collision During collision After collision

Smooth surface

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As velocity is a vector quantity, we can assign velocities to the right positive and
velocities to the left negative.
the total momentum before collision = m1u1 – m2u2
and total momentum after collision = –m1v1+ m2v2
Because total momentum is conserved
m1u1 – m2u2 = –m1v1+ m2v2
or this can be written as
(p1 +p2) before = (p1 +p2) after; where p is momentum
Knowing the masses of the particles and the velocities before collision, this
equation would allow us to calculate the relation between the velocities after the
collision
The way to approach collision problems is as follows.
 Draw a labeled diagram showing the colliding bodies before collision.
Draw a separate diagram showing the situation after the collision. Take care
to define the direction of all the velocities
 Obtain an expression for the total momentum before collision, remembering
that momentum is a vector quantity. Similarly, find the total momentum
after the collision, taking the same reference direction.
 Then equate the momentum before the collision to the momentum
afterwards
Note: when objects bounce back after a collision, be careful about the change
in momentum.
before collision after collision

u
u m
m

If there is an elastic collision initial and final velocities will have the same magnitude
but in opposite directions as shown above
so change in momentum = final momentum – initial momentum
= mu – (–mu ) = 2mu
= p – (–p) = 2p

Examples
1. Two trolleys of masses 8 kg and 5 kg are traveling on the same truck with speeds
4 m s-1 and 2 m s-1 respectively in the same direction. They collided and move
together. Calculate the common velocity after collision.
Solution:
m1 = 8 kg, u1 = 4 ms-1, m2 = 5 kg, u2 = 2 ms-1
Total mass = m1 + m2 = 8 + 5 = 13 kg,
Common velocity = v ms-1

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Total momentum before collision = m1u1 + m2u2 kg m s-1
Total momentum after collision = (m1 + m2) v kg m s-1
Applying the principle of conservation of momentum,
Momentum before collision = momentum after collision
m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2) v
8x 4+5x2 = (8 + 5)v
32 + 10 = 13 v
42 = 13 v
43
v =
13
 v = 3.2 m s-1
2. A 1400 kg car moving westwards with a velocity of 15m s-1 collides with an
electric pole and is brought to rest in 0.30s. Find the magnitude of the force
exerted on the car during the collision. [7.0 x104N]
3. An ice –skater of mass 80kg, initially at rest, pushes his partner, of mass 65kg,
away from him so that she moves with an initial speed of 1.5m s-1. What is the
initial speed of the first skater after this manoeuvre?
4. A cannon of mass 1.5 x 103kg fires a cannon –ball of mass 5.0kg. The speed with
which the ball leaves the cannon is 70m s-1 relative to the Earth. What is the initial
speed of recoil of the cannon?
5. A ball of mass 0.4kg is thrown at a wall. It strikes the wall with a speed of 1.5ms-1
perpendicular to the wall and bounces off the wall with a speed of 1.2m s -1.
Explain the changes in momentum and energy which happen in the collision
between the ball and the wall. Give numerical values where possible.
Note: Whenever two or more bodies collide, their total momentum is conserved
unless there are external forces acting on them. However, the total kinetic energy
usually decreases. This is because some of the kinetic energy is converted by the
impact to other forms of energy such as: heat, sound, and light or permanently
distorts the bodies leaving them with an increased amount of potential energy.

Elastic and Inelastic collisions

Collisions can be categorized as elastic or perfectly elastic collisions and inelastic or
perfectly inelastic collisions.
To distinguish between collisions of bodies, we use the principle of conservation of
momentum and that of kinetic energy.
- In using the principle of conservation of momentum,
Whenever objects collide in the absence of external forces, the total or net momentum
never changes i.e.
the net momentum before collision = net momentum after collision.
- In using the principle of conservation of kinetic energy;
The sum of the kinetic energies before collision is equal to the sum of kinetic energies
after collision.

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These two principles above are used to distinguish collisions as explained below.
Note:
The total momentum remains constant in any type of collision. However, the total
kinetic energy is generally not conserved in a collision because some of the kinetic
energy is converted to thermal energy and internal elastic potential energy when the
objects deform. When the kinetic energy is conserved, the collision is said to be elastic.
Otherwise, the collision is said to be inelastic.

Elastic collision or perfectly elastic collision:

Is the type of collision where linear momentum is conserved, the total kinetic energy is
conserved and the bodies separate after collision.
- Elastic collisions can be head on (one - dimensional) or non – head on.
A head on Elastic collision is that elastic collision in which the colliding bodies move
along the same straight line before and after collision.
During the collision, the bodies will be deformed at the region of contact. So, part of the
kinetic energy will be converted into potential energy. The bodies will regain their
original shape due to elasticity. The potential energy will be reconverted into kinetic
energy.
Consider the collision of two bodies as shown
u1 u2 v1 v2

m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2

Before collision During collision After collision

Smooth surface
If this collision is elastic, both kinetic energy and linear momentum are conserved.
total kinetic energy before collision = m1u12 + m2u22
total kinetic energy afterwards is = m1v12 + m2v22
thus m1u12 + m2u22 = m1v12 + m2v22
When the velocity directions are defined in the figure above and the bodies have the
same mass m. The equation m1u1 – m2u2 = –m1v1+ m2v2
becomes, u1 – u2 = –v1 + v2 ………..(i)
and the equation m1u12 + m2u22= m1v12 + m2v22
becomes, u12 + u22 = v12 + v22
u 1 2 – u 2 2 = v2 2 – v1 2
thus; (u1 – v1)( u1 + v1)= (v2 – u2) + (v2 + u2)……… (ii)
Combining (i) and (ii) gives
u1 + u2 = v1 + v2
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Thus for perfectly elastic collision, the relative speed of approach (u1 + u2) is equal to
the relative speed of separation (v1 + v2). This is relation is useful only for a perfectly
elastic collision.

Non – head on elastic collision

If the collision is not head on, the bodies move in different directions after collision.
Suppose that an object of mass m1, moving with initial speed u1, strikes a second object
of mass m2, which is initially at rest. Suppose that the collision is not head –on , so that
after collision, m1 moves at an angle θ1 to its initial direction and m2 moves off at an
angle θ2 to this direction as shown below

v2
m2

m1 θ2
u1 m2 θ1
m1

v1
Let the final speeds of the two bodies be v1 and v2 respectively.
Since the collision is elastic, momentum is conserved as before but this time we must
treat the total momentum as a vector quantity since we are no longer dealing with one
dimension.
Thus the x and y components of the total momentum before and after collision are
equated.
Before collision the total x –momentum is simply m1u1 since m2 is at rest.
After collision, the x –momentum of m1 is m1v1cos θ1 and
the x – momentum of m2 is m2v2cos θ2
Hence momentum conservation in the x – direction yields;
m1u1 = m1v1cos θ1 + m2v2cos θ2 …………..(i)
Before collision the total y –momentum is zero since there is initially no motion along
the y –axis.
After collision, the y –momentum of m1 is m1v1sin θ1 and
the y – momentum of m2 is m2v2sin θ2
Hence momentum conservation in the y – direction yields;
0 = m1v1sin θ1 + m2v2sin θ2 which gives;
m1v1sin θ1 = m2v2sin θ2 ……………………..(ii)
Considering conservation of kinetic energy
m1u21 + 0 = m1v21 + m2v22 …………………………(iii)

Ivan Brayan MULUMBA @2016 Page 16

Inelastic collision head – on
An inelastic collision is the type of collision where momentum is conserved but total
kinetic energy is not conserved.
Some of the energy changes to heat and sound which are not recoverable.
Sometimes the particles stick together (coalesce) and move with a common velocity, v
after collision.
An inelastic collision in which the two colliding objects stick together and move as a
single body after collision is called perfectly inelastic
Illustration
u1 u2 v

m1 m2 m1 m2 m1+m2
2
Before collision During collision After collision

Smooth surface
For this kind of collision, only momentum is conserved therefore;
m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2) v
In conclusion, If the collision is Elastic, the total kinetic energy before collision is
equal to the total kinetic energy after collision.(K.E is conserved)
Collisions in which total kinetic energy is not the same before and after the event
are called inelastic.
Note:
Total energy must be conserved. But in an inelastic collision the kinetic energy
that does not appear in the same form as it is transformed into heat, sound and
other forms of energy.
In some cases, all the kinetic energy is lost. For example a lump of modeled clay
dropped on to the floor does not bounce. All the kinetic energy it possessed just
before hitting the floor has been transformed into work done in flattening the
lump, and (a much smaller amount) into the sound energy emitted as a ‘squelch’
Before collision with the floor, it had momentum but after collision it had no
momentum.
Although kinetic energy may or may not be conserved in a collision, momentum
is always conserved, and so is total energy.

Ivan Brayan MULUMBA @2016 Page 17

The collisions can be summarized in the table below.
Elastic or perfectly Inelastic collision Perfectly inelastic collisions.
elastic collisions
- Kinetic energy is - Kinetic energy is - Kinetic energy is not
conserved. not conserved. conserved.
- Linear momentum is - Linear momentum - Linear momentum is
conserved. is conserved. conserved.
- Bodies separate after - Bodies separate - Bodies stick together and
collision e.g. collisions after collision e.g. a move with a common
of gas molecules. ball bouncing from velocity (the relative speed
a floor. of separation is zero).

In conclusion, the majority of collisions occurring in real life are not elastic in nature.
Some fraction of the initial kinetic energy of the colliding objects is usually converted
into some other form of energy generally heat energy or energy associated with the
mechanical deformation of the objects during the collision.
General examples:
1. A particle P of mass m1 moving with a speed u1 collides head on with a stationary
particles Q of mass m2. If the collision is elastic and the speeds of the particles after
impact are v1 and v2. Show that for , then;
(a)

(b) Q gains of the total energy of the system.

Solution
(a) By conservation of momentum; m1u1 = m1v1+ m2v2
This implies that; m1(u1 v1) = m2v2 ………………….(i)
from conservation of kinetic energy; m1u12 = m1v12 + m2v22
m1(u1 –v1) (u1 + v1) = m2v22 ……………………(ii)
Dividing equation (ii) by (i) gives
u1 + v1 = v2 then v1 = v2 u1
Substituting for v1 in equation (i) we have;
m1(u1 –( v2 u1)) = m2v2
2u1 – v2 =
2u1 = + v2
2u1 = =

Hence

Ivan Brayan MULUMBA @2016 Page 18

(b) Initial energy m1u12 + 0 = m1u12 (initial total energy)
Energy of Q after collision = m2v22

Fraction gain in energy = = =

But = and = .Therefore fractional change in energy =

2. Two bodies of mass 3kg and 5kg travelling in opposite directions on a horizontal
surface collide. The velocities of the 3kg and 5kg bodies before collision are 6m s-1
and 5m s-1 respectively. They separate after collision and move in the same direction
in which the 5kg body was moving before collision. Given that the velocity of the
5kg body after collision is 1m s-1, find the speed of the 3kg body after impact and the
percentage loss in energy (if at all it is there).
Solution

6ms-1 5ms-1 v 1ms-1

3kg 5kg 3kg 5kg

Before collision After collision

From conservation of momentum m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Since momentum is a vector quantity we have to take into account the direction of
velocity given.
Considering all velocities to the right ( ) to be positive;
(3 x 6) + 5 x ( 5) = 3( v) + 5 x ( 1)
v = m s-1
2 2
Kinetic energy before collision = m1u1 + m2u2
= x 3 x 62 + x 5 x ( 5)2 = 116.5J
2 2
Kinetic energy after collision = m1v1 + m2v2

= x3x + x 5 x ( 1)2
= 3.2J
Loss in energy = K.E before collision –K.E after collision
= 116.5 3.2
= 113.3 J
Percentage loss in energy = = 97.3%

Ivan Brayan MULUMBA @2016 Page 19

3. C

Alpha

A B 60o
θ
v Helium

D
An alpha particle A of mass 4 units is incident with a velocity v on a stationary
helium nucleus B of mass 4 units. After collision, A moves in direction with a
o
velocity , where makes an angle of 60 with the initial direction . The helium
nucleus moves along . Calculate the velocity of rebound of helium nucleus along
and the angle it makes with direction .
Solution
(i) Let x be the velocity of helium after impact.
Consider the conservation of horizontal momentum
………………..(i)
Consider the conservation of vertical momentum
0+0= …………………….(ii)
From (i)

…………………………………..(iii)
From (ii);

……………………………(iv)
But

=1

Ivan Brayan MULUMBA @2016 Page 20

Therefore velocity of helium after collision is
(ii) From and
=
Hence = 30o

4. A bullet of mass 300g travelling at a speed of 8ms-1 hits a body of mass 450g moving
in the same direction as the bullet at 1.5ms-1. The bullet and the body move together
after collision. Find the loss in the kinetic energy.
Solution
u1 u2 v

m1 m2 m1 m2

Before collision After collision

From the principle of conservation of momentum; m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1+ m2)v
v= = =4.1ms–1
2 2
K.e before collision = m1u1 + m2u2 = x 0.3 x 82 + x 0.45 x (1.5)2 =10.10625J
K.e after collision = (m1 + m2)v2 = (0.3 + 0.45) x 4.12 = 6.30375J
Loss in K.e = 10.10625 – 6.30375
= 3.8025J
5. Two balls P and Q travelling in the same line in opposite directions with speeds 6m/s
and 15m/s respectively make a perfect inelastic collision. If the masses of P and Q are
8kg and 5kg respectively, find the
(i) final velocity of P
(ii) charge in kinetic energy
Solution -1
6ms 15ms-1
(i)
P Q P Q v

8kg 5kg After collision

Before collision

Ivan Brayan MULUMBA @2016 Page 21

From the principle of conservation of momentum; mPuP + mQuQ = (mP+ mQ)v
v= = = 2.0769ms–1
Since the final velocity of P is 2.0769 ms–1 in the direction opposite to its initial
direction (that’s the implication of the negative sign).
(ii)
2 2
K.e before collision = mPuP + mQuQ = x 8 x 62 + x 5 x (-15)2 =706.5J
Kinetic energy after collision = (mQ + m2)v2 = (8 + 5)( 2.0769)2 =28.0348J
Change in K.e = 706.5 – 28.0348 = 678.4622J
6. A car of mass 1000kg travelling at uniform velocity of 20m/s collides perfectly
inelastically with a stationary car of mass 1500kg. Calculate the loss in kinetic energy
of the car as a result of the collision.
Solution
From conservation of momentum;
m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1+ m2)v {for perfectly inelastic}
v= = = 8ms–1
loss in k.e of the car = initial k.e of the car – final k.e of the car
loss in kinetic energy = m1u12 m1v2
= m1 (u12 v2 )
= x 100 x (202 82 )
= 168000J
7. An object X of mass m, moving with a velocity 10ms-1 collides with a stationary
object Y of equal mass. After collision, X moves with speed, u, at an angle of 30o to
its initial direction while, Y moves with a speed of, v, at an angle of 90o to the new
direction of X.
(a) Calculate the speed of u and v.
(b) Determine whether the collision is elastic or not.
Solution;
X
-1
30o
X 100ms Y
60o
before collision Y

After collision
(a) Consider conservation of horizontal momentum
From principle of conservation of momentum
m ×10 + m ×0 = m×ucos30 + m × vcos 60
Ivan Brayan MULUMBA @2016 Page 22
10
20 …………………………(i)
Consider vertical momentum (no velocity in the vertical initially)
m ×0 + m ×0 = m ×usin30 + m × vsin60
0=
u …………………....(ii)
putting (ii) into (i)
20 =4v
1
v = 5ms
(b) Kinetic energy before collision = mu2 + 0 = m x (10)2 = 50m J
Kinetic energy after collision = mu2 + mv2
= mx( )2 + m52
= = 50m J
Since the kinetic energy is conserved, the collision is elastic

The Ballistic pendulum

A ballistic pendulum is a device used to measure the speed of the bullet. Consider a
bullet of mass, m, travelling horizontally, and incident with a velocity ums –1 on to a
stationary wooden block of mass, M, suspended by a light vertical string of length L. If
the composite body (block and bullet), moves with a velocity v after collision, and
given that the composite body comes to rest a height, h, above the original position of
the wooden block.
θ
l
x
l

h (M+m)

bullet Composite body

M (bullet +block)
m, u
block
By conservation of momentum
mu+ M(0) = (m +M)v
u=

Ivan Brayan MULUMBA @2016 Page 23

From conservation of energy
Kinetic energy just after collision = potential energy of composite body at height h.
= (m +M)gh
= 2gh
=
But from the diagram
x = l cosθ
But x + h = l
h = l – x = l – l cosθ
h= l(1 – cosθ)
So from = 2gh
= 2g l(1 – cosθ)

Therefore depending on a particular question scenario, any of the variables can be

calculated.
Example
1. A bullet of mass 10g travelling horizontally at 100ms –1 embeds itself in a block of
mass 990g suspended by a string of length 2m, so that it can swing vertically. Find
(a) the vertical height through which the block can rise.
(b) the angle through which it is displaced.
Solution

h (M+m)

bullet
M =0.99kg
m =0.01kg
u = 100ms -1 u=0
Complete the solution for h and θ [h = 0.05m, θ=12o]
2. A bullet of mass 20g travelling horizontally at a speed of 200ms –1 embeds itself in
a block of mass 980g suspended by a string, such that it swings freely. Find;

Ivan Brayan MULUMBA @2016 Page 24

(a) the vertical height through which the block rises
(b) how much of the bullet’s energy becomes internal energy
[Ans. h = 0.82m, the difference in k.e becomes the internal energy= 392J]
3. A bullet of mass 40g is fired from a gun at 200ms –1 and hits a block of wood of
mass 2kg which is suspended by a light vertical string 2m long. If the bullet gets
embedded in the wooden block;
(a) calculate the maximum angle the string makes with the vertical.
(b) state a factor on which the angle of swing depends.
Solution
(a) [θ=52.4o]
(b) The angle of swing depends on;
- The speed of the bullet
- The length of the string

Self-Check
1. When a car is suddenly brought to rest, a passenger jerks forward because of
A. inertia B. friction C. gravity D. momentum
2. A boxer while training noticed that a punch bag is difficult to set in motion and
difficult to stop. What property accounts for this observation?
A. Size. B. Inertia. C. Friction. D. Weight of the bag.
3. Eggs packed in a soft, shock-absorbing box are placed in a car. When the car
suddenly starts or stops moving, the eggs do not crack because
A. no force acts on them
B. the force acts on them for only a short time
C. the force is small and acts for a longer time
D. the force causes fast change of momentum.
4. A body of mass 20 kg moves with a uniform velocity of 4 m/s from rest. Find its
momentum.
A. 5 kg m/s B. 80 kg m/s C. 160 kg m/s D. 320 kg m/s
5. An object of mass 2 kg moving at 5 m/s, collides with another object of mass 3 kg
which is at rest. Find the velocity of the two bodies if they stick together after
collision
A. 1.0 ms-1 B. 2.0 ms-1 C. 2.5 ms-1 D. 5.0 ms-1
7. A body of mass 20 kg moves with a uniform velocity of 4 ms-1 from rest. Find its
momentum.
A. 5kgms-1 B.80 C.160 D. 320
8. When a person steps forward from rest, one foot pushes backwards on the ground.
The ground will as a result push that foot
A. backwards with an equal force B. forwards with an equal force
C. backwards with a smaller force D. forwards with a smaller force

Ivan Brayan MULUMBA @2016 Page 25

9. If the forces acting on a moving body cancel each other out (i.e. are in
equilibrium) the body will
A. move in straight line to the steady speed
B. slow down to a steady slower speed
C. speed up a steady faster speed
D. be brought to a state of rest.
10. A body of mass 20 kg, moving with uniform acceleration, has an initial
momentum of 200kg m/s and after 10 s, the momentum is 300 kg m/s. What is the
acceleration of the body?
A. 0.5 m/s2 B. 5 m/s2 C. 25 m/s2 D. 50 m/s2
Structured questions
1. (a) State Newton’s laws of motion.
(b) Define: (i) Inertia of a body (ii) Momentum.
(d) Explain why a passenger standing on the floor of a lorry jerks backwards when
the lorry starts moving forwards.
(e) A 7-tonne truck initially moving at a velocity of 50m/s accelerates to 80m/s in 3s.
Calculate the force on the truck that caused the velocity change.
2. (a) (i) What is meant by linear momentum?
(ii) State the law of conservation of linear momentum.
3. (a) State the law of conservation of linear momentum.
(b) A water jet directed to a spot on the ground digs a hole in the ground after
sometime. Explain.
(c) A moving ball P of mass 100g collides with a stationary ball Q of mass 200g.
After collision, P moves backwards with a velocity of 2m s-1 while Q moves
forwards with a velocity of 5m s-1. Calculate
(i) The initial velocity of P.
(ii) The force exerted by P on Q if the collision took 0.03s.
4. A sphere of mass 3 kg moving with velocity 4m/s collides head on with a
stationary sphere of mass 2kg & imparts to it a velocity of 4.5 m/s. Calculate the
velocity of the 3kg sphere after the collision.
5. A railway track of mass 4x104 kg moving at a velocity of 3m/s collides with
another truck of mass 2 x104 kg which is at rest. The couplings join & the trucks
move off together. Calculate the common velocity after collision.
6. A bullet of mass 12g is fired horizontally from a gun with a velocity of 180m s -1.
It hits, and becomes embedded in a block of wood of mass 2000g, which is freely
suspended by long strings as shown below.

Ivan Brayan MULUMBA @2016 Page 26

Calculate:
(a) (i) the magnitude of the momentum of the bullet just before it enters the block
[Ans. 2.16kg m s-1]
(ii)the magnitude of the initial velocity of the block and the bullet after impact.
[Ans. 1.07 m s-1]
(ii) the kinetic energy of the block and embedded bullet immediately after impact.
[Ans.1.16J]
(b) deduce the maximum height above the equilibrium position to which the block
and embedded bullet rise after impact. [Ans. 0.059m]

6. Attempt examination style questions on pages 67 to 70 (Mike and Geoff)

Ivan Brayan MULUMBA @2016 Page 27