Control Surveying

Control Surveying is the determination of the precise position of a

series of
stations distributed over an area to serve as the origin or reference
to be used for
checking of subsequent surveys to be used in engineering projects
like property
delineation, topographic and hydrographic mapping, and construction
planning and
design. Control networks which cover the whole country have become been
conducted
with better accuracy and less stringent technique, with the use of
artificial satellites.
These stations are linked to local networks which have been adopted
for special
surveys connected with projects such as dams, roads, railways and
pipelines, large or
small construction sites, etc. The purpose of a control system is to
prevent the
accumulation of errors, by connecting detail work to a consistent
geometrical system
of points, which are accurate enough for the project. Great care is taken to
ensure that
this control is sufficiently accurate.
There was a time when geodetic control points consisted of triangulation
networks
marked by observation pillars. In the Philippines, many triangulation
stations have
been located on top of towers which had been placed on mountain summits
to answer
the problem of intervisibility. But because of the ease with which
positions can be
established by satellite systems, which eliminated the intervisibility
requirement, there
has been less need for establishing so many points. Gradually, as the
scope of the
survey becomes smaller, the use of non-satellite systems to provide control
becomes
more prominent.
CONTROL AND CHECKS SURVEYING
Control Surveying is the determination of the precise position of a
series of
stations distributed over an area to serve as the origin or reference
to be used for
checking of subsequent surveys to be used in engineering projects
like property
delineation, topographic and hydrographic mapping, and construction
planning and
design. Control networks which cover the whole country have become been
conducted
with better accuracy and less stringent technique, with the use of
artificial satellites.
These stations are linked to local networks which have been adopted
for special
surveys connected with projects such as dams, roads, railways and
pipelines, large or
small construction sites, etc. The purpose of a control system is to
prevent the
accumulation of errors, by connecting detail work to a consistent
geometrical system
of points, which are accurate enough for the project. Great care is taken to
ensure that
this control is sufficiently accurate.
There was a time when geodetic control points consisted of triangulation
networks
marked by observation pillars. In the Philippines, many triangulation
stations have
been located on top of towers which had been placed on mountain summits
to answer
the problem of intervisibility. But because of the ease with which
positions can be
established by satellite systems, which eliminated the intervisibility
requirement, there
has been less need for establishing so many points. Gradually, as the
scope of the
survey becomes smaller, the use of non-satellite systems to provide control
becomes
more prominent.
Control underground, in urban streets and inside buildings is
predominantly
carried out by terrestrial methods. Apart from their use with further
ground survey
operations, control points are also required to augment photogrammetric
and remote
sensing methods of mapping. Plan coordinates and heights of points
identifiable on
imagery are needed by all but the most sophisticated systems.
Classes of Control Surveys
There are two classes of control surveys namely: (1) geodetic control
survey; and
(2) project control survey. The classification of the control survey is
essentially based
on the accuracy of which the distances and directions of the lines inside
their traverse,
triangulation, trilateration or GPS networks have been determined.
Geodetic control surveys consist of triangulation, traverse,
trilateration, GPS,
and any combination, which together with leveling and astronomic
observations,
determine the accurate geographic positions of points on the earth’s
surface taking
into account the curvature of the earth. It also includes the determination of
position of
points through satellite survey or photogrammetric aerial triangulation.
Geodetic
control surveys shall be made in accordance with the general instruction
contained in
the special publications used by the Coast and Geodetic Surveys
Department of
NAMRIA for the first, second, and third order control work.
First Order Geodetic Control
Second Order Geodetic Control
Third Order Geodetic Control
Project control surveys consist of traverse, triangulation or any
combination,
which together with leveling, shall determine the positions of control
points between
stations of geodetic accuracy over an area of limited extent, such as isolated
tracts of
lands, group settlements, barangay areas, municipalities or group of
municipalities.
There are three classes of project control namely:
Primary Control – The azimuth of primary control shall be
determined to the
nearest one second of the arc, and the distances shall be measured
twice to the
nearest millimeter, taking into account the temperature, sag, pull, grade
and sea level
correction when using a survey tape
Secondary Control – The azimuth of secondary control shall be
determined to
the nearest fifteen (15) seconds of arc or less and the distances shall
be measured
once to the nearest millimeter, taking into account the temperature,
sag, pull, grade
and sea level correction when using a survey tape.
Tertiary Control – The azimuth of tertiary control shall be
determined to the
nearest one minute of arc or less and the distances shall be
measured once to the
nearest centimeter, taking into account the temperature, pull, sea
level and sag
corrections when using a survey tape.
Control Stations
Control stations are usually small marks set immovably into the ground
such that
the instrument or optical target can be set up above it, to an accuracy of
about 1mm in
the horizontal plane. These would include the horizontal control points
(latitude/longitude or plane coordinates), vertical control points
(orthometric or
ellipsoidal heights), gravity values, and in some but rare cases, crustal
motion values
(movement of points). A control point may have one or more of these values
attached
to it.
In the past, benchmarks (vertical control points) and horizontal control
points are
separately and independently established, but today’s common practice
in creating
control networks demands establishment of points with known horizontal
and vertical
measurements. Control points in the survey must be consistent with all
other points in
the geodetic control and not just within that particular survey.
Location of Control Stations
Control stations are not usually positioned in an exactly predetermined
position.
The normal process is to choose a location where a control station
would be useful
and is secured from being disturbed or moved. After putting up the
station, precise
measurements are then taken to determine exactly where it has been
placed.
The factors which influence the positioning of a control station are as
follows:
 If it is to be used for setting out, or for determination monitoring, then it
should be
placed where all relevant places and features can be easily seen, without
the line
of sight passing close to another object such as a building or hillside. If the
station
is to be used in a conjunction with other similar stations for these purposes,
then
the different lines of sight from the stations should form a well-conditioned
shape,
so that the positions of the observed points will be found to be the
greatest
possible accuracy.
 If the exact position of a new control station is to be fixed by conventional
means
then it must be visible from at least two other control stations (and
preferably from
more). Sometimes, additional control stations are introduced into a network
simply
because they will be visible to several ‘useful’ stations and will therefore
improve
the accuracy to which the positions of those stations are known.
 If the station is to be used for GPS, then a large area of sky should be
visible at
the station (particularly towards the equator), and there should not
be any high
walls nearby which might reflect satellite signals towards the receiver.
 If an instrument is to be left unattended at a station, then the station must
be in a
secure place such that the instrument cannot be stolen or disturbed
while the
surveyor is elsewhere.
As far as possible, a station should be sited in a place where it will be easy
and
safe to use, far away from noise, vibration or traffic, and unlikely to
be disturbed or destroyed during its anticipated useful life. Stations
sited near roads or on tarmac
pathways are always at risk of being covered over, and lost without trace.
Stations in
the middle of building sites are at risk of being dug up, or run by heavy
construction
traffic. The latter may not be destroy a station, but it could move it slightly
– and thus
cause all subsequent observations involving the station to be subtly
inconsistent with
those made beforehand.
Appearance of Control Stations
The type and/or appearance of marker used vary with the following factors:
 Type of soil or material at the marker site
 Degree of permanence is required
 Cost of replacement
 Precision requirements
In open ground, a short-term control station might be a 1mm
diameter hole or
‘center pop’ in a brass tack driven into a short (30cm) wooden stake,
which is then
hammered into the ground. On tarmac, it might be a center mark on a
stainless steel
‘road bolt’ which is likewise driven into the ground. Such road bolts
normally have a
hemispherical head with a diameter of about 5mm, on top of a fixed disk
about 20mm
in diameter. They may also have a plastic washer, or a circle painted
round them,
designed for identification purposes.
For a more permanent marker in open ground, a pre-cast toughened
concrete
block with a suitable marker on its surface might be dug into the ground, so
that only
its top surface is visible. Alternately, a hole can be dug with some ferrous
reinforcing
bars arranged inside it and a quantity of concrete poured in with a non-
rusting marker
fixed so as to emerge slightly above the surface of the concrete
when it has set; a
small solid brass doorknob, some threaded steel rod which it will screw onto
and some
ready mix concrete for fence posts is all that is required. This gives
an extremely
durable station at very modest cost, which has the added advantage
that it can be
covered over with a piece of turf or layer of soil, and thus escape
the risk of being
vandalized when not in use. If the upper surface of the marker is
spherical, then its
highest point can also conveniently be taken to be the height of the station.
A control point on a construction site would normally be surrounded
by a small
rectangular ‘fence’, made of brightly painted wood, to warn drivers of
its existence.
This reduces the likelihood of the station being run over by a heavy
vehicle, and a
broken fence gives a helpful indication that this may have occurred.

Control Survey
Control Surveys are used to establish precise horizontal and vertical
positions of
reference monuments, which serve as the basis for originating or
checking
subordinate survey projects. Control stations are vital in the
establishment of the
country’s national geodetic framework, and are also essential as references
for giving
locations of data entered into Land Information System (LIS), and
Geographic
Information System (GIS).
Field Organization
The organization of fieldwork forms a very important part of the surveyor’s
work. It
entails the preparation of an efficient technical program, which is both
cost effective
and acceptable to the workforce. Because surveying practice is still
weather
dependent the work cannot be scheduled to normal working hours. It is also
affected
by the site environment. Surveying near an operating railway or busy
motorway is
particularly hazardous: work in tropical forests is a danger to health;
sub-zero
temperatures call for special clothing; and transport demands the
proper care and
maintenance of vehicles or boats. The provision of food, accommodation and
fuel has
to be attended to, not to mention the recruitment and payment of temporary
staff and
care for their health. Technical operations can often be the easiest part of
any task.
Technical Procedures
The surveyor must be fully conversant with his instrument if the best results
are to
be obtained. The centering of instruments and targets over reference
marks needs
continual vigilance, and all tripods and plummets need to be secure and
adjusted.
For the best results on control work, horizontal and vertical angles
should be
taken separately, the former on various arcs or zeros. Independent
pointings are
necessary to remove systematic bias. A regular field booking
procedure should be
adopted to avoid omission of vital dimensions, such as heights of
instruments and
targets.
In the case of EDM, proper pointing procedures and meteorological
measurements are essential, as is the attention to batteries and their
charging. A
technical program must have sufficient flexibility to respond to
weather and other
unpredictable factors. Radio communication adds greatly to efficiency
and general
security.
Planning a Control Scheme
All control schemes require careful planning to suit the task in hand and
any likely
future demands. Various survey methods are being used: GPS fixes to give
differential
vectors between stations; an astronomical station to give information about
the geoid
and azimuth control; EDM lines forming part of a lateration scheme
(trilateration or
triangulation); and some radiations to fix photogrammetric control points in
plan and in
height.
Other methods might be used such as intersection, resection, and
traversing,
although not on the same kind of task. In past times the surveyor
was somewhat
inhibited in his choice of method to fix controls because of the tedium of
computation.
This situation has all but disappeared in most countries. Of particular
interest in this
respect is resection, now much employed throughout surveying because of
the ease
with which computer processing has replaced the thirty-minute
calculation by hand
machine.
Processes of Control Survey
The process involved in carrying out the survey can be itemized as follows:
(1) Doing Reconnaissance: Reconnaissance is the examination of a project
area
to assess the overall feasibility of the fieldwork portion of a project.
The
following are some of the many goals to be determined in the
preliminary
survey:
 To assess accessibility of the project area and possibility of alternative
project
routes
 To assess the conditions of existing project control and possibility of
alternative project points
 To assess feasibility of field methods and alternative techniques
 To assess limitations in the environmental conditions
(2) Laying the Stations: The following are some of the many goals to
be
determined in the laying of the station markers:
 To assess the appropriate type of survey markers to use
 To assess the intervisibility of desired project points
 To assess the sky visibility at desired project points in case
astronomic
observations or GNSS will be used in positioning
(3) Distance Measurement: Various techniques are used in measuring
lengths
and distances, from taping to EDM’s, and more recently through
satellite
technology techniques. (read chapter on distance measurement)
(4) Direction Establishment: Bearing and angle measurements are
essential
measurements in surveying. From using astro-geodetic methods of
positioning to using Greco-Roman instruments, establishing direction
has
been employed for various survey operations (read chapter on
direction
establishment)
(5) Position Determination: Determination of coordinates [plane(x, y, z) or
map(E,
N, elevation) or geographic(latitude, longitude, height)]
Horizontal Control
Horizontal control is provided by two or more points on the ground,
permanently
or semi-permanently monumented, and precisely fixed in position
horizontally by
distance and direction, or coordinates.
Horizontal control can be established by the traditional ground surveying
methods
of precise traversing, triangulation, trilateration, and a combination of
these basic
approaches, or by the more modern methods like GPS. In addition,
astronomical
observations have been used to determine azimuth, latitude and
longitude. Rigorous
photogrammetric techniques have also been used to densify the control in
an area.
Until recently, triangulation and trilateration were the most economical
procedures
available for establishing basic control for mapping projects extending over
large areas
like for regions and states. These techniques have now given way to GPS,
which has
not only proven to be highly accurate, but also more efficient.
Monuments whose
positions have been established through higher-order control surveys and
referenced
in the state plane coordinate systems, are used to initiate surveys for
all types, but
unfortunately more are needed in most areas.
Vertical Control
Vertical control is provided by benchmarks in or near the track to be
surveyed,
and it becomes the foundation for correctly portraying relief on
topographic maps.
Vertical control is usually established by running lines of differential levels
starting from
and closing on established benchmarks.
Project or temporary benchmarks are established in strategic locations,
normally
located near and around the project area, and their elevations are
determined by
including them as turning points in differential leveling lines. With the
rapidly growing
popularity of total stations, trigonometric leveling has become
practical, and is now
frequently used to establish vertical control for mapping, especially in
rugged areas.
GPS surveying may also be suitable for establishing vertical control but the
ellipsoidal
heights determined must first be converted to orthometric height to become
useful.
Accuracy Standards and Specifications
Accuracy standards and specifications are required accuracy for a control
survey
depends primarily on the purpose. These are normally established or
created by a
government agency related to surveying and/or mapping. The major factors
that affect
accuracy include the following:
 Type and Condition of Accuracy
 Field Procedure
 Capabilities of Survey Personnel
 Importance of Standards
Accuracy standards are used to provide a uniform set of standards
specifying
minimum acceptable accuracies of control survey for various purposes.
These would
also establish specifications for instruments, field procedures, and
misclosure checks
to ensure that the intended level of accuracy is achieved.
Reference Datum
Kenya’s Vertical Control
Before establishing the Primary Levelling Network in Kenya (1949 - 1958)
all the triangulation networks in the country which were observed between
1906 and 1914 for cadastral and topographical surveys had trigonometrical
heights derived from:
(a) The original Uganda Railway Datum based on an assumed Mean Low
Water Ordinary
Spring Tides at Kilindini, Mombasa. This is the height datum that was used
for the original railway survey from Mombasa to Kisumu around 1900 and
(b) The New Kenya – Uganda Railway Datum based on more accurate
measurements of Mean Low Water Ordinary Spring Tides at Kilindini. This
revised datum was found to be 1.65feet below the previously established
datum in (a) above.
Except for engineering levels related to rail roads, no levelling network had
been established in Kenya before 1949. To establish a uniform system of
reduced heights all over the country primary levelling was initiated in 1949.
This network was designed to cover routes along railways and main roads
connecting towns in Kenya and extending into the neighbouring Uganda
and Tanzania. By 1952, approximately 2,000 Kilometers of levelling circuits
had been observed and provisional height values determined for 1,290
benchmarks (Nyadimo S.A.(1979)).
Double levelling for the Nairobi – Kisumu line with its adjoining circuits was
completed by end of 1959 and connections made to three tide gauges along
Lake Victoria. Between 1965 – 1966, Kisumu – Buteba and Mombasa –
Lungalunga lines were also levelled making it possible to establish
provisional relationship between the three East African Datums.
The primary Levelling Network was referred to the Mean Sea Level (MSL)
values deduced
from the 1932 – 1933 records of the tide gauge at Kilindini in Mombasa, this
therefore means that Kenya’s height Datum is the Mean Sea Level (MSL)
referred to a tide gauge installed at Kilindini habour in Mombasa. Except
for the Webuye – Kisumu – Sirari line that was levelled between 1970 –
1971, no work has been done to extend the primary levelling network in the
country. (Nyadimo S.A. (1979)). See figure 2, the levelling loops are shown
in colour blue.
THE CURRENT GEODETIC REFERENCE SYSTEM IN
KENYA
The Department of Surveys is the official agency of the government of
Kenya on all matters affecting land surveys and mapping. Its’ main
functions are:-

 To provide and maintain plans for property boundaries in support of the

Land Registration throughout the country.
 To provide all kinds of topographical and thematic maps in both rural
and urban areas of the country for use by other Government
Departments and the general public.
The department has been in existence since 1903.

The current geodetic network in Kenya was established during the colonial
times by the British. Since 1892, several major triangulation networks have
been observed and computed by various organisations for specific purposes.
Each organisation thus chose the coordinate system that appeared suitable
resulting in a number of different systems. For each sizeable network, the
readily available datum was used resulting in many datums for both
planimetric and height control.

Doppler observations were carried out by the survey of Kenya between

1972 and 1973. The aim of the exercise was to:

 Evaluate the accuracy of the primary controls in Kenya;

 Provide geodetic control in remote and un-surveyed areas in the country;
 Strengthen the triangulation with precise position at optimum spacing;
 Contribute to the development of a single well fitting datum for the
African continent.
The ITT 5500 equipment was used. Doppler positioning using precise
ephemeris fixed fifteen stations distributed over the country.

The current geodetic network in Kenya is based on the 1960 Arc Datum.
The coordinates are in UTM. There the two main reference ellipsoids used
in Kenya are Clarke 1858 and Clarke 1880.

The datum for all heights in Kenya is the mean sea level referred to a tide
gauge at Kilindini harbour in Mombasa. This gauge has however been
submerged and a new one constructed and connected to some fundamental
bench marks. By the year 2000, 3570km had been precisely levelled, the
last 70km having been carried out by the Kenya Institute of Surveying and
Mapping between 1992 to 1993.

There are three coordinates systems that have been used in Kenya:

 The Cassini-Soldner coordinate system;

 The east African war system; and
 The UTM coordinate system.
Before 1950, nearly all triangulation networks were based on the Cassini-
Soldner coordinate system; hence the cadastral surveys in Kenya were also
based on this system.

The east African war system of coordinates was introduced as a military

system for east Africa. Its main aim was to unify the coordinate system for
the British Commonwealth territories in the south, east and central Africa to
avoid discontinuity in topographical mapping and grid references across
territorial boundaries. The coordinates in this system have since been
converted to UTM system.

The UTM system was introduced in Kenya in 1950 by the directorate of

overseas survey (D.O.S), when it began providing survey work in Kenya. The
system used Clarke 1880 spheroid; the unit of measurement was the
international metre. The survey of Kenya has made an effort to convert all
points to this coordinate system.

Problems experienced with the current geodetic network

Some of the problems that have been experienced through the continued
use of the current geodetic network include:

 The existence of different coordinate systems has caused the need for
regular coordinate conversion especially from Cassini to UTM system of
coordinates;
 Pillars located at hills have been difficult to access and many have been
destroyed; the network is also low;
 Lack of suitable points to base the transformation especially from Cassini
to UTM;
 Lack of information or data from previous work as the records of surveys
carried before 1950 are not readily available;
 Height data has been found not consistent having been derived from
different datums;
 Equipment used earlier had lower level of precision and the network is
generally weak;
 Hydrographical charts are not fully developed due to lack of controls
near the Indian ocean, and around the lakes;
 Points established by space techniques are relatively few;
 Re-establishment of destroyed pillars has not been carried out fully due
to high cost of classical triangulation method.
Minimizing the current problems of geodetic network
There is continued effort to solve the problems resulting from the current
geodetic network. This has primarily been done using the Global Positioning
Service (GPS).

Since August, 1996, Kenya Institute of Surveying and Mapping (KISM),

under the mini-project has been carrying out GPS surveys on first order
triangulation pillars in an attempt to establish transformation parameters
between the WGS 84 ellipsoid and Clarke reference ellipsoid used in East
Africa. The work is still ongoing but is experiencing problems due to lack of
funds.

Advertisement
The Survey of Kenya is in the process of establishing continuous GPS
observation stations in Kenya. The following table indicates the ongoing
phase one construction of the continuous GPS observation stations:

NAME OF COS
FID SHAPE LOCATION SOC REMARKS

1. Point LOKITAUNG KEN

2. Point MOYALE KEN

3. Point LODWAR KEN COMPLETED

4. Point MARSARBIT KEN STARTS IN 2 WEEKS

5. Point MERU KEN COMPLETED

6. Point MANDERA KEN

7. Point WAJIR KEN

8. Point GARISSA KEN COMPLETED

9. Point BONDO KEN COMPLETED

10. Point LIBOI KEN

11. Point HABASWENI KEN

12. Point LOKICHOGIO KEN

13. Point SABAREI KEN

14. Point RCMRD KEN COMPLETED

15. Point MALINDI KEN

16. Point KANZIKU KEN

17. Point EL WAK KEN

18. Point MARALAL KEN STARTS IN 2 WEEKS

19. Point KAPENGURIA KEN

20. Point KILGORIS KEN

21. Point KAJIADO KEN

22. Point WUNDANYI KEN COMPLETED

23. Point KWALE KEN COMPLETED

24. Point MALINDI KEN COMPLETED

25. Point ERDAMA RAVINE KEN COMPLETED

Level 1 or Phase 1 comprises of 25 stations of zero order accuracy with nine

stations completed.

Level 2 or phase two comprise of 72 stations, first order accuracy, to be

done later.
Level 3 or phase 3 comprise of 125 stations, 2 nd order accuracy, to be done
later
Others include 3rd and 4th order types of which they are numerous in
number although most of the points in this category are distributed mostly
in urban areas with minimal or random distribution in the rural areas.
The locations of some Stations were changed as shown in the table below.

No. ORIGINAL LOCATION NEW LOCATION

1. SHIMONI KWALE

2. VOI WUNDANYI

3. ASEMBO BONDO

4. PARSELOI MARALAL

5. KAPENGURIA KANYARKWAT

Dimensions
Base plate is 2.5mx2.5m at 1.0 m deep

Column is 0.6mx0.6m at 2.7m deep on the ground.

Existence of IGS stations

There are two continuous GPS observation stations connected to the IGS
(International Geodynamic GPS Services) stations; one is in Malindi and the
other in KISM (Kenya institute of Surveying and Mapping). The station at
KISM is currently not working. The data from these continuous recording
stations are used for the computations of the baselines and eventual
coordination of all other points.
Conclusion
The problems exhibited by the current geodetic network in Kenya can be
solved through the integration of GIS and GPS in all mapping aspects of the
country. There is need for political will and financing of the Survey of Kenya
in its efforts to carry out GPS observation stations through out the country.
There is also the need for the government to source from the British, the
early records of their geodetic surveys carried out in Kenya during the
colonial times; this will greatly enhance the efforts of Survey of Kenya in
trying to update the current geodetic network. The continuous IGS
observation station at KISM needs to be restored to full functionality to
complement the one operating in Malindi.