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Control Surveying
Control Surveying
Control Surveying is the determination of the precise position of a series of
stations distributed over an area to serve as the origin or reference to be used for
checking of subsequent surveys to be used in engineering projects like property
delineation, topographic and hydrographic mapping, and construction planning and
design. Control networks which cover the whole country have become been conducted
with better accuracy and less stringent technique, with the use of artificial satellites.
These stations are linked to local networks which have been adopted for special
surveys connected with projects such as dams, roads, railways and pipelines, large or
small construction sites, etc. The purpose of a control system is to prevent the
accumulation of errors, by connecting detail work to a consistent geometrical system
of points, which are accurate enough for the project. Great care is taken to ensure that
this control is sufficiently accurate.

There was a time when geodetic control points consisted of triangulation networks
marked by observation pillars. In the Philippines, many triangulation stations have
been located on top of towers which had been placed on mountain summits to answer
the problem of intervisibility. But because of the ease with which positions can be
established by satellite systems, which eliminated the intervisibility requirement, there
has been less need for establishing so many points. Gradually, as the scope of the
survey becomes smaller, the use of non-satellite systems to provide control becomes
more prominent.

Control underground, in urban streets and inside buildings is predominantly

carried out by terrestrial methods. Apart from their use with further ground survey
operations, control points are also required to augment photogrammetric and remote
sensing methods of mapping. Plan coordinates and heights of points identifiable on
imagery are needed by all but the most sophisticated systems.

Classes of Control Surveys

There are two classes of control surveys namely: (1) geodetic control survey; and
(2) project control survey. The classification of the control survey is essentially based
on the accuracy of which the distances and directions of the lines inside their traverse,
triangulation, trilateration or GPS networks have been determined.

Geodetic control surveys consist of triangulation, traverse, trilateration, GPS,

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and any combination, which together with leveling and astronomic observations,
determine the accurate geographic positions of points on the earth’s surface taking
into account the curvature of the earth. It also includes the determination of position of
points through satellite survey or photogrammetric aerial triangulation. Geodetic
control surveys shall be made in accordance with the general instruction contained in
the special publications used by the Coast and Geodetic Surveys Department of
NAMRIA for the first, second, and third order control work.

First Order Geodetic Control

Second Order Geodetic Control

Third Order Geodetic Control

Project control surveys consist of traverse, triangulation or any combination,

which together with leveling, shall determine the positions of control points between
stations of geodetic accuracy over an area of limited extent, such as isolated tracts of
lands, group settlements, barangay areas, municipalities or group of municipalities.
There are three classes of project control namely:

Primary Control – The azimuth of primary control shall be determined to the

nearest one second of the arc, and the distances shall be measured twice to the
nearest millimeter, taking into account the temperature, sag, pull, grade and sea level
correction when using a survey tape.

Secondary Control – The azimuth of secondary control shall be determined to

the nearest fifteen (15) seconds of arc or less and the distances shall be measured
once to the nearest millimeter, taking into account the temperature, sag, pull, grade
and sea level correction when using a survey tape.

Tertiary Control – The azimuth of tertiary control shall be determined to the

nearest one minute of arc or less and the distances shall be measured once to the
nearest centimeter, taking into account the temperature, pull, sea level and sag
corrections when using a survey tape.

Control Stations
Control stations are usually small marks set immovably into the ground such that
the instrument or optical target can be set up above it, to an accuracy of about 1mm in
the horizontal plane. These would include the horizontal control points
(latitude/longitude or plane coordinates), vertical control points (orthometric or
ellipsoidal heights), gravity values, and in some but rare cases, crustal motion values

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(movement of points). A control point may have one or more of these values attached
to it.

In the past, benchmarks (vertical control points) and horizontal control points are
separately and independently established, but today’s common practice in creating
control networks demands establishment of points with known horizontal and vertical
measurements. Control points in the survey must be consistent with all other points in
the geodetic control and not just within that particular survey.

Location of Control Stations

Control stations are not usually positioned in an exactly predetermined position.
The normal process is to choose a location where a control station would be useful
and is secured from being disturbed or moved. After putting up the station, precise
measurements are then taken to determine exactly where it has been placed.

The factors which influence the positioning of a control station are as follows:

 If it is to be used for setting out, or for determination monitoring, then it should be

placed where all relevant places and features can be easily seen, without the line
of sight passing close to another object such as a building or hillside. If the station
is to be used in a conjunction with other similar stations for these purposes, then
the different lines of sight from the stations should form a well-conditioned shape,
so that the positions of the observed points will be found to be the greatest
possible accuracy.
 If the exact position of a new control station is to be fixed by conventional means
then it must be visible from at least two other control stations (and preferably from
more). Sometimes, additional control stations are introduced into a network simply
because they will be visible to several ‘useful’ stations and will therefore improve
the accuracy to which the positions of those stations are known.
 If the station is to be used for GPS, then a large area of sky should be visible at
the station (particularly towards the equator), and there should not be any high
walls nearby which might reflect satellite signals towards the receiver.
 If an instrument is to be left unattended at a station, then the station must be in a
secure place such that the instrument cannot be stolen or disturbed while the
surveyor is elsewhere.

As far as possible, a station should be sited in a place where it will be easy and
safe to use, far away from noise, vibration or traffic, and unlikely to be disturbed or
destroyed during its anticipated useful life. Stations sited near roads or on tarmac
pathways are always at risk of being covered over, and lost without trace. Stations in

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the middle of building sites are at risk of being dug up, or run by heavy construction
traffic. The latter may not be destroy a station, but it could move it slightly – and thus
cause all subsequent observations involving the station to be subtly inconsistent with
those made beforehand.

Appearance of Control Stations

The type and/or appearance of marker used vary with the following factors:

 Type of soil or material at the marker site

 Degree of permanence required
 Cost of replacement
 Precision requirements

In open ground, a short-term control station might be a 1mm diameter hole or

‘center pop’ in a brass tack driven into a short (30cm) wooden stake, which is then
hammered into the ground. On tarmac, it might be a center mark on a stainless steel
‘road bolt’ which is likewise driven into the ground. Such road bolts normally have a
hemispherical head with a diameter of about 5mm, on top of a fixed disk about 20mm
in diameter. They may also have a plastic washer, or a circle painted round them,
designed for identification purposes.

For a more permanent marker in open ground, a pre-cast toughened concrete

block with a suitable marker on its surface might be dug into the ground, so that only
its top surface is visible. Alternately, a hole can be dug with some ferrous reinforcing
bars arranged inside it and a quantity of concrete poured in with a non-rusting marker
fixed so as to emerge slightly above the surface of the concrete when it has set; a
small solid brass doorknob, some threaded steel rod which it will screw onto and some
ready mix concrete for fence posts is all that is required. This gives an extremely
durable station at very modest cost, which has the added advantage that it can be
covered over with a piece of turf or layer of soil, and thus escape the risk of being
vandalized when not in use. If the upper surface of the marker is spherical, then its
highest point can also conveniently be taken to be the height of the station.

A control point on a construction site would normally be surrounded by a small

rectangular ‘fence’, made of brightly painted wood, to warn drivers of its existence.
This reduces the likelihood of the station being run over by a heavy vehicle, and a
broken fence gives a helpful indication that this may have occurred.

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Control Survey
Control Surveys are used to establish precise horizontal and vertical positions of
reference monuments, which serve as the basis for originating or checking
subordinate survey projects. Control stations are vital in the establishment of the
country’s national geodetic framework, and are also essential as references for giving
locations of data entered into Land Information System (LIS), and Geographic
Information System (GIS).

Field Organization
The organization of fieldwork forms a very important part of the surveyor’s work. It
entails the preparation of an efficient technical program, which is both cost effective
and acceptable to the workforce. Because surveying practice is still weather
dependent the work cannot be scheduled to normal working hours. It is also affected
by the site environment. Surveying near an operating railway or busy motorway is
particularly hazardous: work in tropical forests is a danger to health; sub-zero
temperatures call for special clothing; and transport demands the proper care and
maintenance of vehicles or boats. The provision of food, accommodation and fuel has
to be attended to, not to mention the recruitment and payment of temporary staff and
care for their health. Technical operations can often be the easiest part of any task.

Technical Procedures
The surveyor must be fully conversant with his instrument if the best results are to
be obtained. The centering of instruments and targets over reference marks needs
continual vigilance, and all tripods and plummets need to be secure and adjusted.

For the best results on control work, horizontal and vertical angles should be
taken separately, the former on various arcs or zeros. Independent pointings are
necessary to remove systematic bias. A regular field booking procedure should be
adopted to avoid omission of vital dimensions, such as heights of instruments and
targets.

In the case of EDM, proper pointing procedures and meteorological

measurements are essential, as is the attention to batteries and their charging. A
technical program must have sufficient flexibility to respond to weather and other
unpredictable factors. Radio communication adds greatly to efficiency and general
security.

Planning a Control Scheme

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All control schemes require careful planning to suit the task in hand and any likely
future demands. Various survey methods are being used: GPS fixes to give differential
vectors between stations; an astronomical station to give information about the geoid
and azimuth control; EDM lines forming part of a lateration scheme (trilateration or
triangulation); and some radiations to fix photogrammetric control points in plan and in
height.

Other methods might be used such as intersection, resection, and traversing,

although not on the same kind of task. In past times the surveyor was somewhat
inhibited in his choice of method to fix controls because of the tedium of computation.
This situation has all but disappeared in most countries. Of particular interest in this
respect is resection, now much employed throughout surveying because of the ease
with which computer processing has replaced the thirty-minute calculation by hand
machine.

Processes of Control Survey

The process involved in carrying out the survey can be itemized as follows:

(1) Doing Reconnaissance: Reconnaissance is the examination of a project area

to assess the overall feasibility of the fieldwork portion of a project. The
following are some of the many goals to be determined in the preliminary
survey:

 To assess accessibility of the project area and possibility of alternative project

routes
 To assess the conditions of existing project control and possibility of
alternative project points
 To assess feasibility of field methods and alternative techniques
 To assess limitations in the environmental conditions

(2) Laying the Stations: The following are some of the many goals to be
determined in the laying of the station markers:

 To assess the appropriate type of survey markers to use

 To assess the intervisibility of desired project points
 To assess the sky visibility at desired project points in case astronomic
observations or GNSS will be used in positioning

(3) Distance Measurement: Various techniques are used in measuring lengths

and distances, from taping to EDM’s, and more recently through satellite
technology techniques. (read chapter on distance measurement)

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(4) Direction Establishment: Bearing and angle measurements are essential

measurements in surveying. From using astro-geodetic methods of
positioning to using Greco-Roman instruments, establishing direction has
been employed for various survey operations (read chapter on direction
establishment)

(5) Position Determination: Determination of coordinates [plane(x, y, z) or map(E,

N, elevation) or geographic(latitude, longitude, height)]

Horizontal Control
Horizontal control is provided by two or more points on the ground, permanently
or semi-permanently monumented, and precisely fixed in position horizontally by
distance and direction, or coordinates.

Horizontal control can be established by the traditional ground surveying methods

of precise traversing, triangulation, trilateration, and a combination of these basic
approaches, or by the more modern methods like GPS. In addition, astronomical
observations have been used to determine azimuth, latitude and longitude. Rigorous
photogrammetric techniques have also been used to densify the control in an area.

Until recently, triangulation and trilateration were the most economical procedures
available for establishing basic control for mapping projects extending over large areas
like for regions and states. These techniques have now given way to GPS, which has
not only proven to be highly accurate, but also more efficient. Monuments whose
positions have been established through higher-order control surveys and referenced
in the state plane coordinate systems, are used to initiate surveys for all types, but
unfortunately more are needed in most areas.

Vertical Control
Vertical control is provided by benchmarks in or near the track to be surveyed,
and it becomes the foundation for correctly portraying relief on topographic maps.
Vertical control is usually established by running lines of differential levels starting from
and closing on established benchmarks.

Project or temporary benchmarks are established in strategic locations, normally

located near and around the project area, and their elevations are determined by
including them as turning points in differential leveling lines. With the rapidly growing
popularity of total stations, trigonometric leveling has become practical, and is now
frequently used to establish vertical control for mapping, especially in rugged areas.

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GPS surveying may also be suitable for establishing vertical control but the ellipsoidal
heights determined must first be converted to orthometric height to become useful.

Accuracy Standards and Specifications

Accuracy standards and specifications are required accuracy for a control survey
depends primarily on the purpose. These are normally established or created by a
government agency related to surveying and/or mapping. The major factors that affect
accuracy include the following:

 Type and Condition of Accuracy

 Field Procedure
 Capabilities of Survey Personnel
 Importance of Standards

Accuracy standards are used to provide a uniform set of standards specifying

minimum acceptable accuracies of control survey for various purposes. These would
also establish specifications for instruments, field procedures, and misclosure checks
to ensure that the intended level of accuracy is achieved.

Reference Datum
Horizontal and vertical datums consist of a network of control monuments and
benchmarks whose horizontal positions and/or elevations have been determined by
precise geodetic control surveys. These monuments serve as reference points for
originating subordinate surveys of all types.

Philippine Horizontal Datum

In the Philippines, the national horizontal datum is the Luzon Datum. The Luzon
datum was established using two reference points in the province of Marinduque,
which is considered as the geometric central island of the country. These two points,
namely the Balanacan and Baltazar control points, comprise the initial baseline for
the entire triangulation network with the Balanacan point in Marinduque as the starting
point with known geographic coordinates.

With a known azimuth and distance of 38 km away from Balanacan, the

geographic coordinate of Baltazar had been calculated. A series of polygons were
then established to create the triangulation network and establish the triangulation
stations all over the Philippines. Hydrographic surveys were then tied to the
triangulation stations.

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Philippine Vertical Datum

The vertical datum was established by continuous observations of the fluctuations
of tides during a period of about 18 to 19 years, which is equal to one complete tidal
cycle.

The greatest elevation of water achieved for one day is termed as HIGH TIDE. On
the other hand, the greatest depression of waters in a given day is referred to as LOW
TIDE. The HIGH WATER is the maximum height to which the water surface rises
above the standard datum plane during a given period. When several observations of
high water are averaged, it is referred to as the MEAN HIGH WATER, the mean of all
high waters.

For ground elevation measurements, the mean sea level (MSL), which is the
average elevation of the water at all tidal stages, is used. For hydrographic depth
measurements, the Mean Lower Low Waters (MLLW), which is the cyclical average
elevation of the lower of the two low tides, is employed.

Control Surveying By: Matthew Oliver L. Dimal