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IB Physics 2025 Syllabus

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2025 course

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1 & 11: Space, Time & Motion

2 & 12: The Particulate Nature of Matter
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3 & 13: Wave Behaviour 4 & 14: Fields

5 & 15: Nuclear & Quantum Physics

1 & 11 - Space, Time &

Motion
This section of the IB physics syllabus explores the
mechanical properties of matter. It covers kinematics,
motion, forces, momentum, work, energy sources, and
power. It also covers rigid body mechanics and relativity in
detail.

Subtopic Understanding

1: Recall that the motion of bodies through space and

time can be described and analysed in terms of
1.1: position, velocity, and acceleration.
Kinematics & 2: Recall that velocity is the rate of change of position,
motion and acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
3: Understand that the change in position is the
displacement.
4: Recall the difference between distance and
displacement.
5: Recall the difference between instantaneous and
average values of velocity, speed and acceleration, and
how to determine them.
6: Understand and use the equations of motion for
solving problems with uniformly accelerated motion as
given by:
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v = u + at
s = u t + 21 at2
v2 = u2 + 2as
7: Understand motion with uniform and non-uniform
acceleration.
8: Understand the behaviour of projectiles in the
absence of fluid resistance, and the application of the
equations of motion resolved into vertical and
horizontal components.
9: Recall the qualitative effect of fluid resistance on
projectiles, including time of flight, trajectory, velocity,
acceleration, range and terminal speed.

1: Recall Newton’s three laws of motion and

understand that forces are interactions between
1.2: Forces & bodies.
momentum 2: Understand that forces acting on a body can be
represented in a free-body diagram and that free-body
diagrams can be analysed to find the resultant force on
a system.
3: Understand the nature and use of the following
contact forces:
Normal force FN.
Surface frictional force Ff acting in a direction
parallel to the plane of contact between a body
and a surface, on a stationary body as given by
Ff ≤ μsFN or a body in motion as given by
F f = μ d F N.
Tension.
Elastic restoring force FH following Hooke’s law
as given by FH = –kx.
Viscous drag force Fd acting on a small sphere
opposing its motion through a fluid as given by
Fd = 6πηrv.
Buoyancy Fb acting on a body due to the
displacement of the fluid as given by Fb = ρVg.
4: Understand the nature and use of the following field
forces:
Gravitational force Fg is the weight of the body
and calculated by Fg = mg.
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Magnetic force Fm.
5: Recall that linear momentum, as given by p = mv,
remains constant unless the system is acted upon by a
resultant external force.
6: Understand that a resultant external force applied
to a system constitutes an impulse J as given by J =
FΔt where F is the average resultant force and Δt is
the time of contact.
7: Understand that the applied external impulse equals
the change in momentum of the system.
8: Understand that Newton’s second law in the form F
= ma assumes mass is constant whereas F = Δp allows
for situations where mass is changing.
9: Recall the elastic and inelastic collisions of two
bodies and understand explosions, including energy
considerations in elastic collisions, inelastic collisions,
and explosions.
10: Understand that bodies moving along a circular
trajectory at a constant speed experience an
acceleration that is directed radially towards the
centre of the circle—known as a centripetal
2 2
acceleration as given by: a = vr = ω2r= 4Tπ2 r
11: Understand that circular motion is caused by a
centripetal force acting perpendicular to the velocity.
12: Understand that a centripetal force causes the
body to change direction even if its magnitude of
velocity may remain constant.
13: Understand that the motion along a circular
trajectory can be described in terms of the angular
velocity ω which is related to the linear speed v by the
equation as given by v = 2Tπr = ωr.

1: Recall the principle of the conservation of energy

and understand that work done by a force is equivalent
1.3: Work, to a transfer of energy.
energy 2: Understand that energy transfers can be
sources & represented on a Sankey diagram.
power
3: Understand that work W done on a body by a
constant force depends on the component of the force
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along the line of displacement as given by W = Fs cos θ.
4: Recall that work done by the resultant force on a
system is equal to the change in the energy of the
system.
5: Recall that mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic
energy, gravitational potential energy and elastic
potential energy, and that in the absence of frictional,
resistive forces, the total mechanical energy of a
system is conserved.
6: Understand that if mechanical energy is conserved,
work is the amount of energy transformed between
different forms of mechanical energy in a system, such
as:
the kinetic energy of translational motion as
given by: Ek = 21 mv2 = p2 ÷ 2m.
the gravitational potential energy, when close to
the surface of the Earth as given by: ΔEp = mgΔh
the elastic potential energy as given by: EH = 21
k(Δx)2
7: Understand that power developed P is the rate of
work done, or the rate of energy transfer, as given by P
= ΔΔWt = Fv

8: Recall efficiency η in terms of energy transfer or

power as given by η = EEoutput
input
= Poutput
Pinput
9: Understand energy density of fuel sources.

1: Recall the torque τ of a force about an axis as given

by τ = Fr sin θ.
11.1: Rigid
body 2: Understand that bodies in rotational equilibrium
mechanics have a resultant torque of zero and that an unbalanced
torque applied to an extended, rigid body will cause
(HL) angular acceleration.
3: Understand that the rotation of a body can be
described in terms of angular displacement, angular
velocity and angular acceleration.
4: Understand that equations of motion for uniform
angular acceleration can be used to predict the body’s
angular position θ, angular displacement Δθ, angular
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speed ω and angular acceleration α, as given by:
ω +ω
Δθ = f 2 i t
ωf = ωi + αt
Δθ = ωit + 21 αt2

ωf2 = ωi2 + 2αΔθ

5: Understand that the moment of inertia I depends on

the distribution of mass of an extended body about an
axis of rotation.
6: Recall the moment of inertia for a system of point
masses as given by I = Σmr2.
7: Recall Newton’s second law for rotation as given by τ
= Iα where τ is the average torque.
8: Understand that an extended body rotating with an
angular speed has an angular momentum L as given
by: L = Iω
9: Understand that angular momentum remains
constant unless the body is acted upon by a resultant
torque and that the action of a resultant torque
constitutes an angular impulse ΔL as given by: ΔL =
τΔt = Δ(Iω)
10: Understand the kinetic energy of rotational motion
2
as given by Ek = 21 Iω2 = L2I .

1: Understand reference frames and that Newton's

laws of motion are the same in all inertial reference
11.2: Galilean frames and this is known as Galilean relativity.
& special 2: Recall that in Galilean relativity the position x′ and
relativity (HL) time t′ of an event are given by x′ = x – vt and t′ = t.
3: Recall that Galilean transformation equations lead to
the velocity addition equation as given by u′ = u – v.
4: Understand the two postulates of special relativity.
5: Understand that the postulates of special relativity
lead to the Lorentz transformation equations for the
coordinates of an event in two inertial reference
frames as given by:
x′ = γ(x – vt)
t′ = γ(t – vx
c2 )
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6: Understand that Lorentz transformation equations
lead to the relativistic velocity addition equation as
u−v
given by: u′ = 1− uv
c2

7: Understand that the space–time interval Δs

between two events is an invariant quantity as given
by (Δs)2 = (cΔt)2 – (Δx)2.
8: Recall proper time interval and proper length.
9: Understand time dilation as given by: Δt = γΔt0.
10: Understand length contraction as given by: L = L0 ÷
γ
11: Understand the relativity of simultaneity.
12: Interpret space–time diagrams.
13: Understand that the angle between the world line
of a moving particle and the time axis on a space–time
diagram is related to the particle’s speed as given by
tan θ = v ÷ c.
14: Recall that muon decay experiments provide
experimental evidence for time dilation and length
contraction.

2 & 12 - The Particulate

Nature of Matter
This section of the IB physics syllabus explores the behavior
of particles. It covers thermal energy transfers, the
greenhouse effect, gas laws, currents, circuits as well as
thermodynamics in detail.
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Subtopic Understanding

1: Understand molecular theory in solids, liquids and

gases.
2.1: Thermal
energy 2: Recall density ρ as given by: ρ = mV
transfers 3: Understand that Kelvin and Celsius scales are used
to express temperature and that the change in
temperature of a system is the same when expressed
with the Kelvin or Celsius scales.
4: Understand that Kelvin temperature is a measure of
the average kinetic energy of particles as given by
Ek = 32 kB T .
5: Understand that the internal energy of a system is
the total intermolecular potential energy arising from
the forces between the molecules plus the total
random kinetic energy of the molecules arising from
their random motion.
6: Understand that temperature difference determines
the direction of the resultant thermal energy transfer
between bodies.
7: Understand that a phase change represents a
change in particle behaviour arising from a change in
energy at constant temperature.
8: Understand that quantitative analysis of thermal
energy transfers (Q) with the use of specific heat
capacity (c) and specific latent heat of fusion and
vaporization of substances (L) as given by Q = mcΔT
and Q = mL.
9: Understand that conduction, convection and
thermal radiation are the primary mechanisms for
thermal energy transfer and explain conduction in
terms of the difference in the kinetic energy of
particles.
10: Understand quantitative analysis of rate of thermal
energy transfer by conduction in terms of the type of
material and cross-sectional area of the material and
the temperature gradient as given by: ΔΔQt = kA ΔΔTx
11: Understand the qualitative description of thermal
energy transferred by convection due to fluid density
differences.
12: Understand the quantitative analysis of energy
transferred by radiation as a result of the emission of
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electromagnetic waves from the surface of a body,
which in the case of a black body can be modelled by
the Stefan-Boltzmann law as given by: L = σAT4.
13: Recall the concept of apparent brightness (b) and
luminosity (L) of a body as given by: b = L ÷ 4πd2.

14: Understand the emission spectrum of a black body

and the determination of the temperature of the body
using Wien’s displacement law as given by: λmaxT = 2.9
×10−3mK where λmax is the peak wavelength emitted.
5: Recall the solar constant S.

1: Recall the conservation of energy.

2.2: The 2: Recall emissivity as the ratio of the power radiated
greenhouse per unit area by a surface compared to that of an ideal
effect black surface at the same temperature as given by
emissivity = power radiated per unit area ÷ σT4
3: Recall albedo as a measure of the average energy
reflected off a macroscopic system as given by: albedo
= total scattered power ÷ total incident power
4: Understand that Earth’s albedo varies daily and is
dependent on cloud formations and latitude.
6: Understand that the incoming radiative power is
dependent on the projected surface of a planet along
the direction of the path of the rays, resulting in a
mean value of the incoming intensity being S ÷ 4.
7: Recall methane CH4, water vapour H2O, carbon
dioxide CO2, and nitrous oxide N2O, as the main
greenhouse gases. Understand that each of these has
origins that are both natural and created by human
activity.
8: Understand the absorption of infrared radiation by
the main greenhouse gases in terms of the molecular
energy levels and the subsequent emission of radiation
in all directions.
9: Understand that the greenhouse effect can be
explained in terms of both a resonance model and
molecular energy levels.
10: Recall that the augmentation of the greenhouse
effect due to human activities is known as the
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enhanced greenhouse effect.

1: Define pressure as given by: P = F ÷ A.

2.3: Gas laws 2: Understand that the amount of substance n is given
by n = N ÷ NA.
3: Understand that ideal gases are described in terms
of the kinetic theory and constitute a modelled system
used to approximate the behaviour of real gases.
4: Understand that the ideal gas law equation can be
derived from the empirical gas laws for constant
pressure, constant volume and constant temperature
as given by PV ÷ T = constant.
5: Recall the equations governing the behaviour of
ideal gases as given by: PV = NkBT and PV = nRT.
6: Understand that the change in momentum of
particles due to collisions with a given surface gives
rise to pressure in gases and, from that analysis,
pressure is related to the average translational speed
of molecules as given by: P = 31 ρv2.
7: Understand the relationship between the internal
energy U of an ideal monatomic gas and the number of
molecules or amount of substance as given by U = 32
NkBT or U = 32 RnT.
8: Understand the temperature, pressure and density
conditions under which an ideal gas is a good
approximation of a real gas.

1: Recall that cells provide a source of emf, chemical

cells and solar cells are the energy source in circuits,
2.4: Current & and that circuit diagrams represent the arrangement
circuits of components in a circuit.
2: Define direct current (dc) I as a flow of charge
carriers as given by I = Δq ÷ Δt.
3: Understand that the electric potential difference V is
the work done per unit charge on moving a positive
charge between two points along the path of the
current as given by V = W ÷ q.
4: Understand the properties of electrical conductors
and insulators in terms of mobility of charge carriers.
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5: Recall electric resistance, as given by R = V ÷ I, and
its origin.
6: Understand resistivity as given by: ρ = RA ÷ L
7: Understand Ohm’s law and the ohmic and non-
ohmic behaviour of electrical conductors, including the
heating effect of resistors.
8: Understand electrical power 2
P dissipated
2
by a
resistor as given by P = IV = I R = V ÷ R.

9: Recall the combinations of resistors in series and

parallel circuits.
10: Understand that electric cells are characterized by
their emf ε and internal resistance r as given by ε = I(R
+ r).
11: Recall that resistors can have variable resistance.

1: Understand the first law of thermodynamics, as

given by Q = ΔU + W, results from the application of
12.1: conservation of energy to a closed system and relates
Thermodyna the internal energy of a system to the transfer of
mics (HL) energy as heat and as work.
2: Understand that the work done by or on a closed
system as given by W = PΔV when its boundaries are
changed can be described in terms of pressure and
changes of volume of the system.
3: Understand that the change in internal energy as
given by ΔU = 32 NkBΔT = 32 nRΔT of a system is related
to the change of its temperature.
4: Recall that entropy S is a thermodynamic quantity
that relates to the degree of disorder of the particles in
a system.
5: Understand that entropy can be determined in
terms of macroscopic quantities, such as thermal
energy and temperature, as given by: ΔS = ΔQ ÷ T, and
also in terms of the properties of individual particles of
the system as given by: S = kBlnΩ.
6: Recall that the second law of thermodynamics
refers to the change in entropy of an isolated system
and sets constraints on possible physical processes
and on the overall evolution of the system.
7: Recall that processes in real isolated systems are
almost always irreversible and consequently the
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entropy of a real isolated system always increases.
8: Understand that the entropy of a non-isolated
system can decrease locally, but this is compensated
by an equal or greater increase of the entropy of the
surroundings.
9: Understand that isovolumetric, isobaric, isothermal
and adiabatic processes are obtained by keeping one
variable fixed.
10: Understand that adiabatic processes in monatomic
ideal gases can be modelled by the equation as given
by PV 3 = constant
5

11: Recall that cyclic gas processes are used to run

heat engines.
12: Understand that a heat engine can respond to
different cycles and is characterized by its efficiency as
given by:
η = useful work ÷ input energy.
13: Recall that the Carnot cycle sets a limit for the
efficiency of a heat engine at the temperatures of its
heat reservoirs as given by ηCarnot = 1 - TThc

3 & 13 - Wave
Behaviour
This section of the IB physics syllabus explores the features
of waves. It covers wave models, standing waves, and
resonance as well as simple harmonics, wave phenomena,
and the Doppler effect in detail.
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Subtopic Understanding

1: Understsand conditions that lead to simple

harmonic motion.
3.1: Simple
harmonics 2: Recall the defining equation of simple harmonic
motion as given by: a = –ω2x.
3: Recall that a particle undergoing simple harmonic
motion can be described using time period T,
frequency ƒ, angular frequency ω, amplitude,
equilibrium position, and displacement.
4: Understand the time period in terms of frequency of
oscillation and angular frequency as given by: T = f1 =
2π
ω

5: Recall the time period of a mass–spring system as

given by: T = 2π m ÷ k.
6: Recall that the time period of a simple pendulum is
given by: T = 2π l ÷ g .
7: Understand a qualitative approach to energy
changes during one cycle of an oscillation.

1: Understand transverse and longitudinal travelling

waves.
3.2: Wave
models 2: Recall that wavelength λ, frequency ƒ, time period T,
and wave speed v are applied to wave motion as given
by:
v = ƒλ = λ ÷ T.
3: Understand the nature of sound and
electromagnetic waves.
4: Understand the differences between mechanical
waves and electromagnetic waves.

1: Understand that waves travelling in two and three

dimensions can be described through the concepts of
3.3: Wave wavefronts and rays.
phenomena 2: Understand wave behaviour at boundaries in terms
of reflection, refraction and transmission.
3: Describe wave diffraction around a body and
through an aperture.
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4: Draw and interpret wavefront-ray diagrams showing
refraction and diffraction.
5: Recall Snell’s law, the critical angle and total internal
reflection.
6: Understand Snell’s law as given by: nn21 = sin v2
sinθ1 = v1 .
θ2

7: Understand superposition of waves and wave

pulses.
8: Recall that double-source interference requires
coherent sources.
9: Recall the condition for constructive interference:
path difference = nλ, and recall the condition for
destructive interference: path difference = (n + 21 )λ.
10: Understand Young’s double-slit interference as
given by: s = λD ÷ d.

1: Understand the nature and formation of standing

waves in terms of superposition of two identical waves
3.4: Standing travelling in opposite directions.
waves & 2: Understand nodes and antinodes, relative amplitude
resonance and phase difference of points along a standing wave.
3: Understand standing waves patterns in strings and
pipes.
4: Recall the nature of resonance including natural
frequency and amplitude of oscillation based on
driving frequency.
5: Understand the effect of damping on the maximum
amplitude and resonant frequency of oscillation, and
the effects of light, critical and heavy damping on the
system.

1: Understand the nature of the Doppler effect for

sound waves and electromagnetic waves.
3.5: Doppler
effect 2: Understand the representation of the Doppler effect
in terms of wavefront diagrams when either the source
or the observer is moving.
3: Understand the relative change in frequency or
wavelength observed for a light wave due to the
Doppler effect where the speed of light is much larger
than the relative speed between the source and the
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observer as given by:
Δƒ ÷ f = Δλ ÷ λ ≈ v ÷ c.
4: Understand that shifts in spectral lines provide
information about the motion of bodies like stars and
galaxies in space.

1: Understand that a particle undergoing simple

harmonic motion can be described using phase angle.
13.1: Further
simple 2: Recall and utilise various equations for simple
harmonics harmonic motion, including:
x = x0sin(ωt + φ)
(HL) v = ωx0cos(ωt + φ)
v = ± ω x20 x2
ET = 21 mω2x20
Ep = 21 mω2x2.

1: Recall single-slit diffraction including intensity

patterns as given by θ = b ÷ λ.
13.2: Further
wave 2: Understand that the single-slit pattern modulates
phenomena the double slit interference pattern.
(HL) 3: Understand interference patterns from multiple slits
and diffraction gratings as given by: nλ = d sinθ.

1: Understand the observed frequency for sound

waves and mechanical waves due to the Doppler effect
13.3: Further as given by:
Doppler v ).
moving source ƒ′ = f ( v±u
effects (HL) s

moving observer ƒ′ = f ( v±u

v ).
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14 - Fields
This section of the IB physics syllabus explores the basis of
fields. It covers gravitational fields, electromagnetic fields as
well as electromagnetic motion in detail.

Subtopic Understanding

1: Recall Kepler’s three laws of orbital motion.

4.1: 2: Undertand Newton's universal law of gravitation as
Gravitational given by: F = G mr1 m
2
2 for bodies treated as point
fields masses.
3: Recall the conditions under which extended bodies
can be treated as point masses.
4: Understand that gravitational field strength g at a
point is the force per unit mass experienced by a small
point mass at that point is given by: g = mF = G Mr2 .
5: Draw and interpret gravitational field lines.

1: Understand the direction of forces between the two

types of electric charge.
4.2:
Electromagne 2: Understand Coulomb’s law as given by: F = k qr1 q2 2 for
tic fields charged bodies treated as point charges where k =
1
4πϵ0 .
3: Recall the conservation of electric charge.
4: Recall Millikan’s experiment as evidence for
quantization of electric charge.
5: Understand that the electric charge can be
transferred between bodies using friction,
electrostatic induction and by contact, including the
role of grounding (earthing).
6: Recall the electric field strength as given by: E = F ÷
q.
7: Understand electric field lines and the relationship
between field line density and field strength.
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8: Understand the uniform electric field strength
between parallel plates as given by: E = V ÷ d.
9: Understand magnetic field lines.

1: Understand the motion of a charged particle in a

uniform electric and magnetic field.
4.3:
Electromagne 2: Understand the motion of a charged particle in
tic motion perpendicularly orientated uniform electric and
magnetic fields.
3: Understand the magnitude and direction of the
force on a charge moving in a magnetic field as given
by: F = qvB sinθ
4: Understand the magnitude and direction of the
force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic
field as given by: F = BΙL sin θ.
5: Understand the force per unit length between
parallel wires as given by: FL = μ0 2I1πI2r .

1: Understand that the gravitational potential energy

Ep of a system is the work done to assemble the
14.1: Further system from infinite separation of the components of
gravitational the system.
fields (HL) 2: Recall that the gravitational potential energy for a
two-body system is given by: Ep = –G m1rm2 .
3: Recall that the gravitational potential Vg at a point is
the work done per unit mass in bringing a mass from
infinity to that point is given by: Vg = –G(M ÷ r).
4: Understand the gravitational field strength g as the
gravitational potential gradient as given by: g = - ΔΔVrg .
5: Understand the work done in moving a mass m in a
gravitational field as given by W = mΔVg.
6: Understand equipotential surfaces for gravitational
fields.
7: Understand the relationship between equipotential
surfaces and gravitational field lines.
8: Recall and calculate the escape speed vesc at any
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point in a gravitational field as given by vesc = 2GM
r .
9: Recall and calculate the orbital speed vorbital of a
body orbiting a large mass as given by vorbital = GM r .
10: Understand the qualitative effect of a small viscous
drag force due to the atmosphere on the height and
speed of an orbiting body.

1: Understand the electric potential energy Ep in terms

of work done to assemble the system from infinite
14.2: Further separation.
electromagne 2: Understand the electric potential energy for a
tic fields (HL)
system of two charged bodies as given by: Ep = k q1rq2 .
3: Understand that the electric potential is a scalar
quantity with zero defined at infinity.
4: Understand that the electric potential Ve at a point
is the work done per unit charge to bring a test charge
from infinity to that point as given by Ve = kQ ÷ r.

5: Understand the electric field strength E as the

electric potential gradient as given by: E = - ΔΔVre .
6: Understand the work done in moving a charge q in
an electric field as given by W = qΔVe.
7: Understand equipotential surfaces for electric fields.
8: Recall the relationship between equipotential
surfaces and electric field lines.

1: Recall magnetic flux Φ as given by Φ = BA cosθ.

14.3: 2: Understand that a time-changing magnetic flux
Induction (HL) induces an emf ε as given by Faraday’s law of
induction: ε = −N ΔΦ
Δt .

3: Understand that a uniform magnetic field induces

an emf in a straight conductor moving perpendicularly
to it as given by: ε = BvL.
4: Understand that the direction of induced emf is
determined by Lenz’s law and is a consequence of
energy conservation.
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5: Understand that a uniform magnetic field induces a
sinusoidal varying emf in a coil rotating within it.
6: Understand the effect on induced emf caused by
changing the frequency of rotation.

5 & 15 - Nuclear &

Quantum Physics
This section of the IB physics syllabus explores the behavior
of atoms. It covers fission, fusion, and stars. It also covers
atomic structure, radioactive decay, and quantum physics in
detail.

Subtopic Understanding

1: Understand the Geiger–Marsden–Rutherford

experiment and the discovery of the nucleus.
5.1: Atomic
structure 2: Understand nuclear notation AZ X.
3: Understand that emission and absorption spectra
provide evidence for discrete atomic energy levels.
4: Understand that photons are emitted and absorbed
during atomic transitions.
5: Understand that the frequency of the photon
released during an atomic transition depends on the
difference in energy level as given by E = hƒ.
6: Understand that emission and absorption spectra
provide information on the chemical composition.
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1: Understand the concept of isotopes.
5.2: 2: Understand nuclear binding energy and mass
Radioactive defect.
decay 3: Understand the variation of the binding energy per
nucleon with nucleon number.
4: Understand the mass-energy equivalence as given
by: E = mc2 in nuclear reactions.
5: Understand the existence of the strong nuclear
force, a short-range, attractive force between
nucleons.
6: Appreciate the random and spontaneous nature of
radioactive decay.
7: Understand the changes in the state of the nucleus
following alpha, beta and gamma radioactive decay.
8:− Recall
+
the radioactive decay equations involving α,
β , β , and γ.
9: Appreciate the existence of neutrinos ν and
antineutrinos v .
10: Describe the penetration and ionizing ability of
alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays.
11: Understand the activity, count rate and half-life in
radioactive decay.
12: Recall the changes in activity and count rate during
radioactive decay using integer values of half-life.
13: Understand the effect of background radiation on
count rate.

1: Understand that energy is released in spontaneous

and neutron-induced fission.
5.3: Fission
2: Understand the role of chain reactions in nuclear
fission reactions.
3: Recall the role of control rods, moderators, heat
exchangers and shielding in a nuclear power plant.
4: Understand the properties of the products of
nuclear fission and their management.
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1: Understand that the stability of stars relies on an
equilibrium between outward radiation pressure and
5.4: Fusion & inward gravitational forces.
stars 2: Recall that fusion is a source of energy in stars.
3: Describe the conditions leading to fusion in stars in
terms of density and temperature.
4: Understand the effect of stellar mass on the
evolution of a star.
5: Understand the main regions of the Hertzsprung–
Russell (HR) diagram and how to describe the main
properties of stars in these regions.
6: Understand the use of stellar parallax as a method
to determine the distance d to celestial bodies as given
by: d(parsec) = 1 ÷ p(arc‐second).

7: Understand how to determine stellar radii.

1: Recall the relationship between the radius and the

nucleon number for a nucleus as given by: R = R0A1/3
15.1: Further and implications for nuclear densities.
atomic 2: Describe deviations from Rutherford scattering at
structure (HL) high energies.
3: Understand the distance of closest approach in
head-on scattering experiments.
4: Understand the discrete energy levels in the Bohr
model for hydrogen, as given by: E = - 13.6
n2 eV.
5: Understand that the existence of quantized energy
and orbits arise from the quantization of angular
momentum in the Bohr model for hydrogen as given
by: mvr = 2nhπ .

1: Recall that the photoelectric effect as evidence of

the particle nature of light.
15.2:
Quantum 2: Understand that photons of a certain frequency,
physics (HL) known as the threshold frequency, are required to
release photoelectrons from the metal.
3: Understand Einstein’s explanation using the work
function and the maximum kinetic energy of the
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photoelectrons as given by Emax = hƒ – Φ where Φ is
the work function of the metal.
4: Recall that diffraction of particles as evidence of the
wave nature of matter.
5: Understand that matter exhibits wave–particle
duality.
6: Understand the de Broglie wavelength for particles
as given by: λ = h ÷ p.
7: Recall Compton scattering of light by electrons as
additional evidence of the particle nature of light.
8: Understand that photons scatter off electrons with
increased wavelength.
9: Understand the shift in photon wavelength after
scattering off an electron as given by: λf - λi = Δλ = mhe c
(1–cos θ).

1: Recall the evidence for the strong nuclear force.

15.3: Further 2: Understand the role of the ratio of neutrons to
radioactive protons for the stability of nuclides.
decay (HL) 3: Recall the approximate constancy of binding energy
curve above a nucleon number of 60.
4: Understand that the spectrum of alpha and gamma
radiations provides evidence for discrete nuclear
energy levels.
5: Understand the continuous spectrum of beta decay
as evidence for the neutrino.
6: Recall the decay constant λ and the radioactive
decay law as given by: N = N0e−λt.
7: Understand that the decay constant approximates
the probability of decay in unit time only in the limit of
sufficiently small λt.

8: Understand the activity

− λt
as the rate of decay as
given by: A = λN = λN0e .
9: Understand the relationship between half-life and
the decay constant as given by T1/2 = ln2 ÷ λ.
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