Republic of the Philippines

NORTHERN NEGROS STATE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Old Sagay, Sagay City, Negros Occidental
(034)722-4120, www.nonescost.edu.ph

LESSON 1: CRUSTAL MOVEMENT/DIASTROPHISM

I. LEARNING OUTCOMES:

1. Discuss diastrophism.
Ans. Diastrophism refers to the process of deformation or movement of the Earth's crust due
to tectonic forces. It includes various geological processes such as folding, faulting, and
warping, which result in the formation of mountains, valleys, and other landforms.
Diastrophism is driven by the movement of tectonic plates, which can collide, separate, or slide
past each other, causing stress and strain on the Earth's crust. Over time, these forces can
lead to the creation of mountain ranges, rift valleys, and other geological features.
Diastrophism plays a significant role in shaping the Earth's surface and influencing the
distribution of landforms and geological features.
2. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of crust
movement/diastrophism
Ans. They provide land to stand on, so we can be land mammals rather than ocean creatures.
Disadvantage: The move around sometimes, causing earthquakes that knock down our
buildings and kill people.
3 . Describe the functions of different driving mechanisms as
evident to the statement of the plate tectonics.
Ans. Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that explains the movement and interaction of
Earth's lithospheric plates. Different driving mechanisms play a role in the movement of these
plates. Here are the functions of some key driving mechanisms:

1. Ridge Push: This mechanism occurs at mid-ocean ridges where new crust is formed through
volcanic activity. As magma rises and solidifies, it pushes the older, denser crust away from the
ridge, creating a pushing force that drives plate movement.

2. Slab Pull: Slab pull is associated with subduction zones, where one tectonic plate is forced
beneath another. The sinking of the denser plate into the mantle creates a gravitational force
that pulls the rest of the plate along with it.

3. Mantle Convection: The mantle, a semi-fluid layer beneath the Earth's crust, undergoes
convection currents. Heat from the Earth's core causes the mantle material to rise, cool, and
sink back down. This convective motion can exert a dragging force on the overlying lithospheric
plates, contributing to their movement.

4. Ridge Sliding: At transform plate boundaries, such as the San Andreas Fault in California,
plates slide past each other horizontally. The movement is driven by the lateral forces
generated by the spreading at mid-ocean ridges.

5. Mantle Plumes: Mantle plumes are upwellings of abnormally hot material from deep within
the Earth's mantle. These plumes can cause localized upward movement of the overlying
plates, leading to the formation of volcanic hotspots like the Hawaiian Islands.

These driving mechanisms collectively contribute to the overall movement and interaction of
tectonic plates, resulting in processes such as seafloor spreading, subduction, and continental
drift. It is important to note that plate tectonics is a complex system influenced by multiple
factors, and the relative importance of each driving mechanism can vary depending on the
specific tectonic setting

LESSON 2: CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

I. LEARNING OUTCOMES:

1. Discuss continental drift theory.

Ans. In the early part of the 20th century, scientists began to put together evidence that the
continents could move around on Earth's surface. The evidence for continental drift included
the fit of the continents; the distribution of ancient fossils, rocks, and mountain ranges; and
the locations of ancient climatic zones.
2. Trace the history of continental drift theory.
Ans. The history of the continental drift theory can be traced back to the early 20th century
when Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist and geophysicist, proposed the concept of
continental drift. Here is a brief overview of the key milestones in the development of this
theory:

1. Early Observations: In the early 20th century, Wegener noticed the remarkable fit between
the coastlines of South America and Africa. He also observed similarities in rock formations,
fossils, and climate patterns between these continents, suggesting that they were once
connected.

2. Hypothesis of Continental Drift: In 1912, Wegener presented his hypothesis of continental

drift in his book "The Origin of Continents and Oceans." He proposed that the continents were
once part of a single supercontinent called Pangaea, which gradually broke apart and drifted to
their current positions.

3. Lack of Mechanism: Despite the compelling evidence, Wegener faced skepticism from the
scientific community due to the lack of a plausible mechanism to explain how continents could
move. His ideas were met with resistance and were not widely accepted at the time.

4. Seafloor Spreading: In the 1960s, new evidence emerged through the discovery of seafloor
spreading. Scientists found that the oceanic crust was spreading apart at mid-ocean ridges,
forming new crust and pushing the existing crust away. This provided a mechanism for the
movement of continents.

5. Plate Tectonics Theory: In the late 1960s, the theory of plate tectonics was developed,
incorporating the concept of continental drift. It proposed that the Earth's lithosphere is
divided into several large plates that move and interact with each other. This theory provided a
comprehensive framework to explain various geological phenomena, including earthquakes,
volcanic activity, and the movement of continents.

6. Acceptance and Confirmation: With the development of plate tectonics theory, the concept of
continental drift gained widespread acceptance within the scientific community. Further
evidence, such as paleomagnetic data, the mapping of oceanic ridges and trenches, and
advances in technology like GPS, have provided additional confirmation of the movement of
continents.

Today, the theory of continental drift, along with plate tectonics, forms the foundation of
modern geology and our understanding of the dynamic nature of the Earth's crust.
3. Describe various evidences of the continental drift theory.
Ans. The continental drift theory, proposed by Alfred Wegener in the early 20th century,
suggests that the Earth's continents were once joined together in a single supercontinent called
Pangaea and have since moved apart. Several lines of evidence support this theory:
1. Fit of the continents: The coastlines of continents on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean,
such as South America and Africa, appear to fit together like puzzle pieces. This observation
suggests that these continents were once connected.

2. Fossil evidence: Fossils of the same species have been found on different continents that are
now widely separated. For example, identical plant and animal fossils have been discovered in
South America and Africa, indicating that these continents were once connected and shared
the same ecosystems.

3. Rock formations and mountain ranges: Similar rock formations and mountain ranges are
found on different continents that are now far apart. For instance, the Appalachian Mountains
in North America align with the Caledonian Mountains in Europe, suggesting a shared
geological history.

4. Paleoclimatic evidence: Ancient climate indicators, such as glacial deposits and coal beds,
have been found in regions that currently have different climates. For example, glacial
striations and deposits in Africa and South America suggest that these regions were once
located near the South Pole.

5. Paleomagnetic data: Magnetic minerals in rocks record the Earth's magnetic field at the time
of their formation. By studying the magnetic properties of rocks, scientists have found that the
magnetic patterns on either side of mid-ocean ridges match, indicating that the seafloor has
been spreading apart.

These various lines of evidence provide compelling support for the continental drift theory and
have led to the development of the modern theory of plate tectonics, which explains the
movement of Earth's lithospheric plates and the associated geological phenomena.

LESSON 3: PLATE TECTONICS

3.1 Evidence of Plate Tectonics Model
3.2 Driving Mechanism
I. LEARNING OUTCOMES:

1. Discuss various evidences of the strong concepts of plate tectonic

theory.
Ans. Evidence for Tectonic PlatesEarthquakes, mountain building and volcanic activity occur
mostly at the boundaries of the moving plates. Only shallow earthquakes occur where plates
diverge at mid-ocean ridges, whereas earthquakes extend to great depth where plates converge
at subduction zones.
2. Describe the different plate motions associated with plate
boundaries.
Ans. Divergent boundaries --where new crust is generated as the plates pull away from each
other.
Convergent boundaries --where crust is destroyed as one plate dives under another.
Transform boundaries --where crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide
horizontally past each other.
3. Relate the plate tectonics theory to the presence of a volcanic chain
in the region and the mountainous topography of the country.
Ans. The plate tectonics theory provides a framework for understanding the presence of a
volcanic chain in a region and the mountainous topography of a country. According to this
theory, the Earth's lithosphere is divided into several large plates that are constantly moving
and interacting with each other.
In the case of a volcanic chain, it is often associated with a convergent plate boundary, where
two plates are colliding. One plate, usually an oceanic plate, is forced beneath another plate,
typically a continental plate, in a process called subduction. As the oceanic plate sinks into the
Earth's mantle, it undergoes intense heat and pressure, causing the release of molten rock or
magma. This magma rises to the surface, resulting in volcanic activity. Over time, repeated
volcanic eruptions can form a chain of volcanoes. The mountainous topography of a country
can also be attributed to plate tectonics. Mountain ranges are commonly formed at convergent
plate boundaries, where two continental plates collide. The collision causes the crust to buckle
and fold, leading to the uplift of large mountain ranges. The Himalayas, for example, were
formed as a result of the ongoing collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates.
4. Describe the functions of different driving mechanisms as evident to
the statement of the plate tectonics.

Ans. Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that explains the movement and interaction of
Earth's lithospheric plates. Different driving mechanisms contribute to the movement of these
plates. Here are the main driving mechanisms and their functions:

1. Ridge Push: This mechanism occurs at mid-ocean ridges where new crust is formed through
volcanic activity. As magma rises and solidifies, it pushes the plates apart. The newly formed
crust then slides down the sides of the ridge due to gravity, creating a pushing force that drives
plate movement.

2. Slab Pull: Slab pull is associated with subduction zones, where one tectonic plate is forced
beneath another into the mantle. As the denser plate sinks, it pulls the rest of the plate along
with it. This gravitational force generated by the sinking slab helps drive plate motion.

3. Mantle Convection: The mantle, the layer beneath the Earth's crust, is in a semi-fluid state.
Heat from the Earth's core causes convection currents within the mantle. Hot material rises,
cools near the surface, and then sinks back down. These convective movements in the mantle
can exert a drag force on the overlying plates, contributing to their motion.

4. Slippage along Transform Boundaries: Transform boundaries are areas where two plates
slide past each other horizontally. The movement occurs due to the build-up of stress along the
boundary. When the stress exceeds the strength of the rocks, they slip and release energy in
the form of earthquakes. This slippage allows the plates to move independently of each other.

These driving mechanisms work together to create the complex movements and interactions of
Earth's tectonic plates. It is the combination of these forces that shapes the Earth's surface,
creates mountain ranges, causes earthquakes, and influences the distribution of landforms
and geological features.

LESSON 4: SEAFLOOR SPREADING

I. LEARNING OUTCOMES:

1. Discuss seafloor spreading.

Ans. Seafloor spreading occurs at divergent plate boundaries. As tectonic plates slowly move
away from each other, heat from the mantle's convection currents makes the crust more plastic
and less dense. The less-dense material rises, often forming a mountain or elevated area of the
seafloor. Eventually, the crust cracks.
2. Describe various evidences of seafloor spreading.
Ans. First, the samples of the deep ocean floor show that basaltic oceanic crust and overlying
sediment become progressively younger as the mid-ocean ridge is approached and the
sediment cover is thinner than near the ridge. Second, the rock making up the ocean floor is
considerably younger than the continents', with no samples found over 200 million years old,
as contrasted with the maximum ages of 3 billion years for the continental rocks.

CHAPTER 4: WEATHERING

I. LEARNING OUTCOMES:

1. Describe how rocks undergo weathering.

Ans. Rocks go weathering by wind,heat and water:
heat-because of the sun
water-because of the rain
wind-because of the air
2. Explain how the products of weathering are carried away by erosion and
deposited elsewhere.
Ans. Weathering is the process were rocks are broken down into sediments through physical or
chemical means. Erosion is the process of eroding or removal of substance like sediments and
transporting it away from the origin of the substance. Erosion relies on natural way of
transporting sediments like being carried by running water and wind. The products of
weathering are being carried away by erosion in different ways. Let's have this as an example,
when rain falls and hits the rocks, the oxygen in the water oxidizes the minerals in rocks
causing it to break away from the rocks and dissolved together in the water. The running water
carried the weathered rock sediments or minerals in three ways such as solution, suspension
and as bed load.
Then the water runs down from the elevated region down to the lower region carrying the
sediments or minerals together with it.
3. Explain how weathering and erosion shape the surface of the earth.
Ans. Weathering is the mechanical and chemical hammer that breaks down and sculpts the
rocks. Erosion transports the fragments away. Working together they create and reveal marvels
of nature from tumbling boulders high in the mountains to sandstone arches in the parched
desert to polished cliffs braced against violent seas.

CHAPTER 5: THE SOIL

II. LEARNING OUTCOMES:

5. Discuss the factors that affect the rate of rock breakdown and the
controls of soil formation.
Ans. Climate, organisms, relief (landscape), parent material and time are five major factors of
interaction creating different types of soils. Climate: Temperature and moisture influence the
speed of chemical reactions, which in turn help control how fast rocks weather and dead
organisms decompose.
6. Make a report on how rocks and soil move downslope due to the direct action of
gravity.
7. Explain how weathering and erosion shape the surface of the earth.
Ans. Weathering is the mechanical and chemical hammer that breaks down and sculpts the
rocks. Erosion transports the fragments away. Working together they create and reveal marvels
of nature from tumbling boulders high in the mountains to sandstone arches in the parched
desert to polished cliffs braced against violent seas.
8 Cite ways how soil erosion will be prevented.
Ans. Soil erosion can be prevented by adding a few plants or trees where the soil typically
erodes, adding fencing gullies and removing wildlife that will eat the vegetation.

The eroding of the soil occurs naturally whenever there is moving water or even exposure to the
wind.

When erosion occurs in waterways, it can result in an overflow of silt. Silt can damage plants
and animals in streams, lakes and harbors just as easily as pollution can by covering up young
plants and killing animals. Soil erosion can often be prevented if individuals and companies are
more careful about the way the land is being used.