GEN CHEM | WEEK 1

MATTER - made up of ions, atoms, and molecules that occupies space and has mass
STATES OF MATTER SOLID LIQUID GAS

molecules tightly packed close together separated

pattern regular no regular no regular

molecules movement can’t move past each other flows vibrate freely

shape retain assume from container indefinite volume

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
1. Physical Property - reversible and observed without changing composition
a. Extensive - depends on how much matter is considered
b. Intensive - does not depend on how much matter is considered
- Freezing (liquid - solid) - Melting (solid to liquid)
- Evaporation (liquid - gas) - Condensation (gas to liquid)
- Sublimation (solid - gas) - Deposition (gas to solid)
2. Chemical Property - irreversible and changes identity, composition, or substance

SEPARATION

Filtration Evaporation Chromatography Simple Distillation

- insoluble solid - soluble solid - mix dissolved - volatile from
from liquid from liquid with colors non-volatile

CLASSIFICATIONS

Pure Substance - physically inseparable; Mixture - combination of substances retaining

definite & constant composition their distinct identities

A. Element - inseparable 1 atom A. Homogeneous - same comp. (solution)

B. Compound - 2 chemically united B. Heterogeneous - not uniform

elements in fixed proportions composition (suspension and colloid)
GEN CHEM | WEEK 2
FACTS:
➢ Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
➢ All atoms of a given element are identical (same size, mass, and chemical properties.
➢ Atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements
➢ Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element.
➢ In any compound, the ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two elements present is either an
integer or a simple fraction.
➢ A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement of atoms (does
not result in their creation or destruction)

HISTORY OF ATOMIC THEORY

1. Democritus (440 BC) - coined Greek atomos means indivisible

2. Robert Boyle (1650) - discovered gas made of tiny particles

3. Antoine Lavoisier (1765) - first made table of elements (33)

- uses single common language in Science
which is English
- Law of Conservation of Mass

4. John Dalton (1803) - Law of Multiple Proportions

- (billiard)

5. J.J. Thomson (1897) - accidentally discovered electrons with

Cathode Ray Tube Experiment

- Plum Pudding Model

6. Ernest Rutherford (1909) - discovered protons with Gold Foil

Experiment

- Rutherford Model

7. Niels Bohr (1913)

- Planetary Model

8. Erwin Schrodinger (1926)

- Electron Cloud Model

9. James Chadwick (1932) - proved existence of neutron

Ion - is an atom or group of atoms that has a net positive or negative charge

CATION ANION

- Ion with a positive charge. - Ion with a negative charge.

- If a neutral atom loses one or more - If a neutral atom gains one or more
electrons, it becomes a cation. electrons, it becomes an anion.

I. Monatomic Ion
- a monatomic ion contains only one atom
II. Polyatomic Ion
- a polyatomic ion contains more than one atom

OTHER TERMINOLOGIES
1. Atomic Number (Z) - number of protons in nucleus
2. Mass Number (A) - no. of protons + no. of neutrons = (Z) + no. of neutrons
3. Isotopes - are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of
neutrons in their nuclei

SOLVING AND EXAMPLES:

Given
Unknown
Formula
Solution
Answer
GEN CHEM | WEEK 3
TERMINOLOGIES
➔ Atomic Mass - mass of atom in atomic mass units (amu)
➔ Average Atomic Mass - weighted average of all naturally occurring isotopes of element
➔ Mole - unit to count numbers of particles (mol)
- amount of substance that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms
➔ Molar Mass - mass of 1 mole of eggs, shoes, marbles, atoms in grams for any element
➔ Molecular Mass - sum of atomic masses (in amu) in a molecule
➔ Formula Mass - sum of atomic masses (in amu) in formula unit of ionic compound
➔ Chemical Reaction - process in which 1/more subs.is changed into 1/more new subs.
➔ Chemical Equation - uses chemical symbols to show what happens during chem. reaction

FORMULAS
1. Mass of element (g) 2. Number of moles of 3. Number of atoms of
- Molar Mass (g/mol) element (n) element (N)
/atomic mass x /divide: atoms or mass/ - No. of molecules
subscript + atomic mass - No. of formula units
x subscript of 2nd /multiply moles to
element/ 6.022x1023 atoms/

PERCENT COMPOSITION
1. Get the atomic mass of the elements.
2. Add all the atomic masses of the elements with the subscript.
3. Divide the 1st element’s atomic mass by the sum of all atomic masses
4. Multiply the quotient by 100
5. Do the same process again with the other elements.
6. Add all the products and if the sum is 100, the answers are correct.
GEN CHEM | WEEK 4
Reading Chemical Equations
E.g. 2 Mg + O2 = 2 MgO
- 2 atoms Mg + 1 molecule O2 makes 2 moles MgO
- 2 moles Mg + 1 mole O2 makes 2 moles MgO
- 48.6 grams Mg + 32.0 grams O2 makes 80.6 grams MgO
NOT 2 grams Mg + 1 gram O2 makes 2g MgO

BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS E.g. C2H6 + O2 = CO2 + H2O

1. Write correct formula for reactants on left C2H6 + O2 = CO2 + H2O

and correct formula for products on right

2. Change numbers in front of formulas 2C2H6 NOT C4H12

(coefficients) to make numbers of atoms
of each element the same on both sides
of equation (Don’t change the subscripts)

3. Balance elements that appear in only 1

reactant and 1 product (List Method)

4. Balance elements that appear in 2/more

reactants or products

5. Check to ensure that you have the same

number of each type of atom on both
sides of equation

AMOUNTS OF REACTANTS AND PRODUCTS

❖ Write balanced chemical equation
❖ Convert quantities of known substances into moles
❖ Use coefficients in balanced equation to calculate #
of moles of sought quantity
❖ Convert moles of sought quantity into desired units
GEN CHEM | WEEK 5
Reagent
- substance or compound that is added to a system in order to bring about a chemical reaction, or
added to see if a reaction occur
- Reagents can be a mixture or a compound // reactants used up first in the reaction
- 2NO + O2 = 2NO2

TYPES OF REAGENTS
Limiting Reagents Excess Reagents
- limits/determines the amount of product - Its quantity is more than enough to react
that can be formed in a reaction (NO) with limiting reagent (O2)

REACTION YIELDS
Theoretical Yield - amount of product that
would result if all limiting reagent reacted

Actual Yield - amount of product actually 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

obtained from a reaction %Yield = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑥 100%
Percentage Yield - percent ratio of actual yield
to the theoretical yield

GEN CHEM | WEEK 6

GASES
- occupy far more space than liquids/solids from which they form
- expand to fill their containers; easy to compress
PRESSURE
- force exerted by colliding molecules per unit area of container walls; force amt. exerted per area
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
- Pressure = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
- Force = mass x acceleration
COMMON UNITS FOR PRESSURE
GAS LAWS
Boyle’s Law
- At constant temp, the pressure of a fixed
quantity of gas varies inversely with vol.
- If pressure on gas increases, the volume
of gas will decrease proportionally.

Charles’ Law
- At constant pressure, volume of fixed
quantity of gas is directly proportional to
absolute temp.
- Volume increases proportionally to
absolute temperature

Avogadro’s Law
- Under the same temp. and pressure,
gasses occupy equal volumes contain
same number of mole

Ideal Gas Equation

- Conditions at 0 degree Celsius and 1 atm
are called standard temperature and
pressure (STP)

GEN CHEM | WEEK 7

Gas Stoichiometry - dealing with gaseous substances where we have given volume data or asked to
determine the volume of some component in a chemical reaction
- quantitative relationship (ratio) between reactants and products in a chemical
reaction with reactions that produce gases
- applies when gases produced are assumed to be ideal, and temp, pressure, and
volume of the gases are all known
Amount of reactant Moles of reactant Moles of product Amount of product
(grams or volume) (grams or volume)

John Dalton
- known for Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure
- Fields: Meteorology, Chemistry
- Nationality: British
- Died: July 27, 1844
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
- States that total pressure of mixture of gases is equal to the sum of partial pressures of the
individual component gases. The partial pressure is the pressure that each gas would exert if it
alone occupied the volume of the mixture at the same temperature

Consider a case in which 2 gases, A and B, are in a container of volume

𝑛𝐴𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑉
𝑛𝐴 is the number of moles of A
𝑛𝐵𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝐵 = 𝑉
𝑛𝐵 is the number of moles of B
𝑛𝐴 𝑛𝐵
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝐵 𝑋𝐴 = 𝑛𝐴+𝑛𝐵
𝑋𝐵 = 𝑛𝐴+𝑛𝐵

𝑃𝐴 = 𝑋𝐴𝑃𝑇 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑋𝐵𝑃𝑇
𝑛𝑖
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑋𝑖𝑃𝑇 mole fraction (𝑋𝑖) = 𝑛𝑇
GEN CHEM | WEEK 8

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES

1. A gas is composed of molecules that are separated from each other by distances far greater than
their own dimensions. The molecules can be considered to be points; that is, they possess mass
but have negligible volume
2. Gas molecules are in constant motion in random directions, and they frequently collide with one
another. Collisions among molecules are perfectly elastic.
3. Gas molecules exert neither attractive nor repulsive forces on one another
4. The average kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the temperature of the gas in
Kelvins. Any 2 gases at the same temperature will have the same average kinetic energy.
1 2
KE = 2
𝑚𝑢
COMPRESSIBILITY OF GASES: BOYLE’S LAW
- P a collision rate with wall
Collision rate a number density
1
Number density a 𝑉
1
Pa 𝑉
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES AND CHARLES’ LAW
- P a collision rate with wall
Collision rate a average kinetic energy of gas molecules
Average kinetic energy a T
PaT
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES AND AVOGADRO’S LAW
- P a collision rate with wall
Collision rate a number density
Number density a n
Pn
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES AND DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES
- Molecules do not attract or repel one another
P exerted by one type of molecule is unaffected by the presence of another gas
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = Σ𝑃𝑖
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION: SUPER COLD ATOMS
−7
Maxwell velocity distribution of Rb atoms at about 1.7 x 10 𝐾 | Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC)

PHENOMENON OF EFFUSION
- had been known for thousands of years but not until early 19th century that quantitative
experiments related rate of effusion to molecular properties
- Rate of effusion of a gaseous substance is inversely proportional to the square root of its molar
mass. This relationship is referred to as Graham’s law, after the Scottish chemist Thomas Graham
(1805 - 1869).
- ratio of the effusion rates of 2 gases is the square root of the inverse ratio of their molar masses

GAS DIFFUSION GAS EFFUSION

- gradual mixing of molecules of 1 gas with - process which gas under pressure
molecules of another by virtue of their escapes from 1 compartment of
kinetic properties container to another by passing through
small opening

𝑟1 𝑀2 𝑟1 𝑡1 𝑀2
𝑟2
= 𝑀1 𝑟2
= 𝑡2
= 𝑀1
DEVIATIONS FROM IDEAL BEHAVIOR
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝑉
𝑛 = 𝑅𝑇 = 1. 0

EFFECT OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ON THE PRESSURE EXERTED BY A GAS

Van der Waals Equation (non ideal gas)

2
𝑎𝑛
(𝑃 + 2 )(𝑉 − 𝑛𝑏) = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑉