RUHENGERI INSTITUTE OF

HIGHER EDUCATION
(INES)

Module Title and Code: Bridge Engineering

(CEN8744)

Civil Engineering Dept.

Module Leader: Eng. N.Jean Bosco

COURSE CONTENT:
 Introduction to design of bridges,
 General definitions,
 Types (Classification) of bridges,
 Bridge components,
 Bridge loading,
 Design rules,
 Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN OF
BRIDGES
General Introduction
A bridge is a structure built to span and provide
passage over physical barriers such as a river,
valley, road, railway or any other physical hurdle. In
this definition, all types of structures such as road
bridges, pedestrian bridges, movable bridges as well
as culverts are defined as bridges.
Historically, the first bridges were made by nature
as simple as a log fallen across a stream. The first
bridges made by humans were probably spans of
wooden logs or planks and eventually stones, using a
simple support and crossbeam arrangement. Most of
these early bridges could not support heavy
weights or withstand strong currents. It was these
inadequacies which led to the development of better
bridges. The first book on bridge engineering was
written by Hubert Gautier in 1716. With the
industrial revolution in the 19th century, truss systems
of wrought iron were developed for larger bridges,
but iron did not have the tensile strength to
support large loads. With the advent of steel, which
has a high tensile strength, much larger bridges were
built, many using the ideas of Gustave Eiffel.
Definitions of terms used in bridge design
An important first step in understanding the
principles and processes of bridge design and
construction is learning basic bridge terminology.
This section summarizes the terminologies used in
bridge design and construction.
Short span bridge: Spans up to 15 m.
Medium span bridge: Spans between 15m to 50 m.
Large span bridge: Total length greater than 50m
Culvert: A cross drainage structure having total
length of 8 m or less between inner faces of dirt wall.
Foot Bridge: A bridge extensively used for carrying
pedestrians, cycles and animals.
Highest Flood Level: The level of highest flood ever
recorded or the calculated level for design discharge.
Lowest Flood Level: The level of the water surface
obtained in dry season.
Channel: A natural or artificial watercourse.
Freeboard: The minimum clearance between the
bottom of the girders (soffit of the superstructure)
and the design H.F.L.
Length of Bridge: The length of a bridge
structure will be taken as overall length measured
along the centre line of the bridge between inner
faces of dirt wall.
Safety Kerb: A roadway kerb for occasional use of
pedestrian traffic.
Width of Carriageway: Minimum clear width
measured at right angles to the longitudinal
centreline of bridge between inside faces of roadway
kerb.
Bearings: The part of the bridge structure which
bears directly all the forces from the structure above
and transmits the same to the supporting structure.
Abutment: The end supports of deck of bridge,
which also retains earth, fill of approaches behind
fully or partly. It is part of substructure referring to the
first and the last supports of a bridge.
Bearing Capacity: The supporting power of a soil /
rock expressed as bearing stress.
Foundation: The part of bridge in direct contact
with and transmitting load to the founding strata.
Pier: Intermediate supports of the superstructure of
a bridge.
Retaining Wall: A wall designed to resist the
pressure of earth filling behind.
Wing Wall: Essentially is a retaining wall adjacent to
abutment and sloping down up to ground level or a
little above at the other end. This is generally at
45 degrees to the alignment of road or parallel to the
river and follows the profile of earthen banks.
Superstructure: Part of the bridge structure that
carries the traffic load and transfers it to the
substructure. It consists of the deck and all other
permanent and variable structures to which the loads
are subjected.
Deck: The portion of the superstructure in contact
with vehicle tyres.
Substructure: Part of the bridge structure such as
pier, abutment and foundation which supports the
superstructure. It also includes return walls and wing
walls but excludes bearings.
Bridge Design Principles
Bridge design must be based on three principles:
capacity, cost and safety.
a. Capacity
A bridge controls the capacity of the transportation
system. For instance: If the strength of the bridge is
unable to carry heavy trucks, load limits will be
posted and heavy trucks will be rerouted. The design
should therefore be able to accommodate the traffic
expected throughout the design life of the bridge.
b. Cost
The design should therefore optimize all options in
order to minimize costs as much as possible. This can
be controlled by right choice of the location,
materials, structural form etc.
c. Safety
If the bridge fails, the transportation system will not
be in a position to give function. The design should
therefore analyses all the factors that might affect
the structural integrity of the bridge. This includes
the bearing capacity of the strata, the materials for
bridge construction, design of structural components,
construction methods, provisions for inspection etc.
Types of bridges
Bridge types depend on the classification method
adopted. The classification can be according to:

a. Construction material.
The bridge types in this classification include:
(i) Timber bridges
(ii) Masonry bridges
(iii) Steel bridges
(iv) Reinforced concrete bridges
(v) Prestressed concrete bridges
(vi) Composite bridges
b. Usage/ traffic/Functionality.
The bridge types in this classification include:
(i) Footbridges/pedestrian bridge
(ii) Highway bridges
(iii) Railway bridges

c. Span
The bridge types in this classification include:
(i) Culvert: span, L ≤ 8m
(ii) Short span bridges: L ≤ 15m
(iii) Medium span bridges: 16m ≤ L ≤ 50m
(iv) Large span bridges: 51 ≤ L ≤ 150m
(v) Extra-large span bridges: L ≥ 150m
d. Life span
The bridge types in this classification include:
(i) Temporary bridges
(ii) Permanent bridges
e. Horizontal Arrangement
The bridge types in this classification include:
(i) Straight/Normal bridge
(ii) Skewed bridge
(iii) Curved bridge
f. Vertical arrangement
The bridge types in this classification include:
(i) Horizontal/Flat/Normal bridge
(ii) Inclined bridge
g. Span arrangement
The bridge types in this classification include:
(i) Simply supported bridge
(ii) Continuous bridges
(iii) Cantilever bridge
h. Movements
(i) Movable bridges
(ii) Fixed bridges
i. Structural form/Arrangement
There are six basic bridge forms: the beam, the
truss, the arch, the suspension, the cantilever, and
the cable-stay. Figure 1.2 shows the basic forms for
bridges.

Figure 1.2: Basic Structural Forms for Bridge Design

Various combinations of the six forms above can
allow for design of numerous bridges such as:
(i) Slab bridges
(ii) Beam/Girder bridges
(iv) Portal frame bridges
(v) Arch bridges
(v) Truss bridges
(vi) Cable stayed bridges
(viii) Suspension bridges

Subsequent discussions consider classifications based

on structural form.
Slab Bridges
The characteristic feature of a slab bridge is the fact
that the slab is the main carrying load element of
the bridge and it is also the slab that transmits the
loads directly to the substructure. The load is
transferred through bending action.
Bridges are referred to as slab bridges if the ratio
between W/D ≥ 5, where W is the total width and D is
the depth of the slab. If W/D < 5, the structure is a
beam bridge.
Slab bridges may be of either solid, voided or rib
construction. The cross section can be either
rectangular, with sloping slab edges or of the
cantilever type. Figure 1.3 shows typical types of
slab bridges.

Figure 1.3: Typical types of slab bridges

Optimal span recommended for Slab Bridge: 4 -20m.
This type of bridge is possibly the cheapest alternative:
economically advantageous for short spans, good ground
conditions and low construction height.

Beam/Girder bridges
Beam bridges are the most common and the simplest type
of bridge, whether statically determinate beams (simply
supported) or continuous beams. Simply supported
beams are usually adopted only for very small spans (up
to 25m). Continuous beams are one of the most common
types of bridge. The spans may vary from small (10-
20m) to medium (20-50m) or large spans (> 100m). The
beam carries vertical loads by bending. Figure 1.4 shows
typical example of continuous beam bridge and
corresponding load action.
The common beams/girders are I-beam girders and box-
girders used in steel girder bridges, reinforced concrete
and post-tensioned concrete used in concrete beam
bridges. Examining the cross section of the I-Beam speaks
for its so name.

Figure 1.4: Typical continuous beam bridge

A box girder takes the shape of a box. The typical box
girder has two webs and two flanges. However, in some
cases there are more than two webs, creating a multiple
chamber box girder. Other examples of simple girders
include T-shaped girders.
An I-beam is very simple to design and build and
works very well in most cases. However, if the bridge
contains any curves, the beams become subject to twisting
forces, also known as torque. The added second web in a
box girder adds stability and increases resistance to twisting
forces. This makes the box girder the ideal choice for
bridges with any significant curve in them. Box girders,
being more stable are also able to span greater distances
and are often used for longer spans, where I-beams would
not be sufficiently strong or stable.

Cross-section of T concrete beam bridge Cross-section of rectangular concrete beam bridge

Cross-section of I - steel girder bridge Cross-section of a concrete box girder bridge

Figure 1.5: Examples of beam bridges based on shapes
Portal Frame /Integral abutment Bridges
This methodology of constructing bridges is a rather new
approach. It is the possible alternatives to continuous
beams. The main idea is to avoid the cost of bearings and
movement joints between the sub- and superstructures.
The deck structure can be of concrete or steel, but concrete
is mostly preferred (timber is not effective). It bears the
load through bending.
This bridge type has reduced initial and lifecycle costs,
due to joint-less construction; lighter and smaller
abutments; shorter time for foundation construction
compared to traditional piling. Optimal span recommended
is 16-30 m. Schematic representation of integral abutment
bridge is shown in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6: Schematic representation of integral abutment bridge

Arch bridges
Arch bridges pose a classic architecture and the oldest after
the girder bridges. Unlike simple girder bridges, arches are
well suited to the use of stone. Since the arch doesn’t
require piers in the centre, they are good choices for
crossing valleys and rivers. Examples of arch bridge are
shown in Figure 1.7.
Arch bridge with deck on top Arch bridge with underlying deck
Figure 1.7: Arch bridge with deck on

Arches use a curved structure which provides a high

resistance to bending forces. Arches can only be used
where the ground or foundation is solid and stable
because unlike girder and truss bridges, both ends of
an arch are fixed in the horizontal direction. Modern
prestressed concrete or steel arches exists with spans
reaching the order of 300m.
Truss Bridges
For this type of bridge the main load carrying element is
the truss, and it is the truss that transfer the loads to the
substructure.
Trusses are popular because they use a relatively
small amount of material to carry relatively large
loads.

Figure 1.8: Schematic representation of load carrying mechanism in truss bridges

The bridge deck may be above, between or underneath the
trusses.
The small size of individual parts of a truss make it the
ideal bridge for places where large parts or sections
cannot be shipped or where large cranes and heavy
equipment cannot be used during erection.
For longer spans vertical members are added providing
extra strength. Warren trusses are typically used in spans
of between 50-100m.
Cable stayed bridges
A cable stayed bridge is a bridge that consists of one
or more columns (normally referred to as towers or
pylons), with cables supporting the bridge deck.
From the towers, cables stretch down diagonally (usually to
both sides) and support the girder/deck. Steel cables are
extremely strong but very flexible. Cables are very
economical as they allow a slender and lighter structure
which is still able to span great distances. Though only a
few cables are strong enough to support the entire bridge,
their flexibility makes them weak to a force we rarely
consider: the wind.
Cable stayed bridges have been used for a range of
spans generally between 100m and 500m, where
suspension bridge is not an economical solution. However,
the range span for cable stayed bridges has been reported to
be 500m to 1500m.
There are two major classes of cable stayed bridges,
differentiated by how the cables are connected to the
tower(s): the harp design (cables are made nearly parallel)
and the fan design (the all cables connect to or pass over the
top of the tower. These are shown in Figure 1.9 together
with the load transfer mechanism.
Load-transfer mechanism
Classes of cable stayed bridges
in cable stayed bridges
Figure 1.9: Classes of cable stayed bridge and corresponding load-transfer mechanism

Cables and (box) girders are the primary force resisting

elements. Cables resist forces through tension and pre-
stress the girders. Girders resist forces through bending.
Suspension bridges
A suspension bridge is a type of bridge where the main
load-carrying elements are hung from suspension cables.
Suspension bridges have two tall towers through which the
cables are strung. The tensile forces of the cables are
transmitted to the anchoring at the extreme ends of the
cables as shown in Figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10: Suspension Bridge and the main Load carrying elements
A suspension bridge carries vertical loads through
curved cables in tension. These loads are transferred both
to the towers, which carry them by vertical compression
to the ground, and to the anchorages, which must
resist the inward and sometimes vertical pull of the
cables. The suspension bridge can be viewed as an upside-
down arch in tension with only the towers in compression.
Because the deck is hung in the air, care must be taken to
ensure that it does not move excessively under loading. The
deck therefore must be either heavy or stiff or both. They
are suitable for span range between 100 m to excess of
1,500m.
Cantilever bridges
A beam is said to be cantilevered when it projects outward,
supported only at one end. A cantilever bridge is generally made
with three spans, of which the outer spans are both anchored
down at the shore and cantilever out over the channel to be crossed.
The central span rests on the cantilevered arms extending from
the outer spans; it carries vertical loads like a simply supported
beam or a truss-that is, by tension forces in the lower chords and
compression in the upper chords. Inner towers carry those forces
by compression to the foundation, and outer towers carry the forces
by tension to the far foundations.

Figure 11: Cantilever Bridge

Components of a bridge
A schematic representation of a typical bridge is shown in
Figure 1.12 featuring the major components of a bridge.

Figure 1.12: Schematic representation of a typical Bridge

A bridge and the ground immediately surrounding it are divided into principal parts as follows:
□ Ground
□ Substructure including foundation
□ Superstructure
□ Structure components
□ Accessories
Ground
Examples of the elements which the ‘Ground’ is divided
into:
□ River course
□ Embankment
□ Retaining walls
The Substructure
Examples of elements which the Substructure is divided
into include:
□ Abutments
□ Piers
□ Towers
□ Anchoring
The Superstructure
The superstructure carries the traffic together with its own
weight to the substructure through the bearings. All
elements of a bridge situated above the supports are
regarded as the Superstructure.
Examples of elements belonging to the superstructure can
be:
□ Slab
□ Beam
□ Deck
Additionally, some elements which form part of a
superstructure are listed under structure components and
accessories.
Bridge Loading
Bridge loads on structures emanate from four different
sources, namely, materials (permanent loads), traffic (live
load), the environmental and construction methods. This
can be structured as shown schematically in Figure 1.13.
Realistically, not all the loads shown in Figure 1.13 can be
considered to act simultaneously. They are combined under
different load cases with different load factors.
Figure 1.13: Schematic representation of loads on a typical bridge