REVIEWER IN SCIENCE 8 – CHEMISTRY

Particle Nature of Matter

PARTICLE - smallest particle of any substance
COMPOUND - when two or more elements, chemically combined in a fixed ratio by mass.
ELEMENTS - is a pure substance that cannot be broken down by chemical methods into simpler parts.
MIXTURES - a material made up of two or more different chemical substances.
MOLECULES - smallest particle in a chemical element or compound.
MATTER : anything that has mass and volume ( occupies space )
MASS : amount of matter that object contain
VOLUME : is the space occupied by an object

• Other Properties of Matter

BOILING POINT - the temperature at which a liquid boils and turns to vapor.
DENSITY - is the measurement of how tightly a material is packed together. It is defined as the mass per unit volume.
MELTING POINT - the temperature at which a given solid will melt.
ODOR : the quality of something that stimulates the sense of smell.
COLOR : the property possessed by an object of producing different sensations on the eye as a result of the way the object reflects or
emits light.

• Particle Theory of Matter

- All substances are made up of tiny particles.
- The particles are attracted towards other surrounding particles.
- The particles are always moving.
- The hotter the substance is the faster the particles move.
- Particles of matter has spaces between them.

• STATES OF MATTER
Properties of Solid

- It has definite shape and volume because its particles are close packed together in a fixed volume.
- These particles vibrate and are held together by strong attractive forces.
- It is difficult to compress the particles. ( the particles are compacted )
Properties of Liquid

- It has a definite volume and no definite shape, it takes the shape of the container.
- Flows easily because its particles have enough space and have less attractive forces.
- The spaces in the particles allows particles to be compressed a little bit.
- Move about freely but are constantly attracted to each other.
Properties of Gas

- It takes the volume and shape of the container ( no definite shape and volume ).
- Gas particles are far from each other that is why they have the weak attractive force and can flow easily.
- They occupy the entire space available. The large spaces in between particles allows particles to be compressed easily.

PHASE CHANGE / PHYSICAL CHANGE

ATOM - smallest part of substance
Physical Change - is a type of change in which only the form or phase of the substance is altered.
• The chemical composition of a substance that underwent the physical change remains the same before and after the process.
Phase change happen :
• Typically occur when the temperature and pressure of a system is altered when temperature increases matter becomes hotter when
temperature decreases matter becomes colder.

What happen during phase change?

• Endothermic Process - "endo" ( inside ) & "therm" ( heat )
- the system absorbs energy from its surrounding ; energy goes in. Ex. Melting ice cubes.
• Exothermic Process - "exo" ( outside ) & "therm" ( heat )
- the systems releases energy to its surroundin ; energy goes out. Ex. campfire / freezing water into ice

Thermal Energy
Why do you think energy or heat is important in the phase change of matter?
- When a material is heated ; it absorbs heat energy. This additional energy can cause attractive forces between molecules to break.
This leads to rearrangements of the particles because the attractive forces no longer hold them together as tightly.

1. What happens to the rearrangement of particles in solid liquid gas as the temperature increases?
- As the temperature increases force of attraction between particles decreases.
2. What happenes to the kinetic energy of particles of matter in solid liquid gas as temperature increases?
- As the temperature increases, kinetic energy will also increase.
3. What happens to the rearrangement of particles in solid liquid gas as the temperature decreases?
- As the temperature decreases force of attraction between particles increases.
4. What happenes to the kinetic energy of particles of matter in solid liquid gas as temperature decreases?
- As the temperature decreases, kinetic energy will also decrease.

Phase Change in Matter

• Endothermic Process ( absorbs energy)
MELTING : solid to liquid - absorbs heat ( ex. butter in a hot pan )
EVAPORATION : liquid to gas - absorbs heat ( ex. drying clothes under the sun )
SUBLIMATION : solid to gas - absorbs heat ( ex. moth balls sublime )

• Exothermic Process ( releases energy )

FREEZING : liquid to solid - release heat ( ex. water to form ice )
CONDENSATION : gas to liquid - release heat ( ex. water droplets outside a glass of cold water )
DEPOSITION : gas to solid - release heat ( ex. snow, frost )

SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES
Atom - is regarded as the smallest unit of matter.
- atoms comes from the Greek word atomos ( indivisible )
- atom is thought to be the smallest particle of a given element.

Nucleus – it is found at the center of the atom that contains protons (positively charged) and nuetrons (no charge)
Electrons – it is in the outermost regions of the atom (negatively charged)
Proton – found within the nucleus of an atom (positively charged) — discovered by Ernest Rutherford in 1917
Electric Charge – fundamental electrical property ( +/- )

• A single atom is said to be electrically neutral if it’s number of electrons (e-) is equal to the number of protons (p+)
• Thus, the atomic number (z) of an element also specifies the number of electrons in neutral atom
• Mathematically, for a neutral atom, Z = p+ = e-

Mass Number
- The sum (+) of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in an atom
- It is the rounded whole number value of the atomic mass of an element
- They are usually found at the bottom part of the periodic table of the element
Mass Number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
Mass Number = sum of the masses of proton and neutron
Number of Neutron = Mass Number = Number of Proton
Number of Neutron (n0) = Mass
Number (A) / Mass Number – Number of Protons (p+)

Isotopes – Atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. They share almost the same chemical properties,
but differ in mass and therefore in physical properties
- Same of protons but differ in neutrons
Ions – atom that gain charges; lost/gain electron
Anion – Negative charge ion; gain electrons
Cation – positive charge; atom loses electron
Charge of Ion = Number of Protons (p+) – Number of Electrons (e-)

PERIODIC TABLE
- Shows all the elements in the same universe
- Tabular organized display of the chemical elements, which arranged by atomic number and properties
Johann Dobreiner – (1829) a German chemist who formed the triads of the elements with similar properties
- The elements in a triad has similar chemical properties and orderly physical properties
John Newlands – (1864) an English chemist proposed the law of octaves. He based his classification of elements on the fact that
similar properties could be noted for every eight elements when they are arranged in order of increasing atomic mssses
Dmitri Mendeleev – (1869) the one who first publish his periodic table in 1869
- Was a Russian chemist who arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic mass
Lothar Meyer – (1864) was a German chemist
- He arranged 28 elements into 6 families with similar chemical and physical traits
- He produced the same conclusion as Dmitri Mendeleev
Henry Mosely – (1914) an English physicist observed that the order of the X-ray frequencies emitted by elements follows the ordering
of the elements by atomic number
• Modern Periodic Table – the properties of elements vary periodically with atomic number
- Arranged by increasing atomic number
Glenn Seaborg – (1944) American chemist who identified lanthanides and actinides
William Ramsay – (1894) british chemist who discovered the four noble gases (neon, krypton, and xenon) (argon and helium)

• Periods/Series (horizontal) – first element in the period is active solid, the last element is always inactive gas
- Tells about the number of shells present in an atom
• Groups/Families (vertical; 1-18)
• Hydrogen – is in a class of its own
- One proton, electron, and energy level
• Alkali Metals ( Group 1) – one valence electron, good conductors of heat and electricity
- Most reactive because it only has 1 valence electron
- Malleable because it can be hammer into thin sheets
- Ductile because it can be drawn into wires without breaking
- They react violently with water
- Never found as free elements in nature
- Always bonded with another element
• Alkaline Earth Metals (Group 2) – they have two valence electrons
- Second most reactive elements
- Malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity
- Not as soft as Group 1 elements
• Boron Group (Group 13) – has three valence electron
- Named after the first element in the family
- Boron = metalloid
- Most are metals
- Solid at room temp
• Carbon Group (Group 14) – has 4 valence electron
- The elements in this are the key importance for semiconductor technology
Nitrogen Group (Group 15) – have 5 electrons in their outermost energy level
- Includes non-metals, metalloids, and metals
- Arsenic: King of Poison (Odorless and poisonous element) – Belong in Group 15
- Named after the element that makes up 78% of our atmosphere
- Syphilis (HIV) – Arsenic was medicine to it from 1910 – before 1940
Chalcogens Group (Group 16) – with 6 valence electrons
- Commonly known as Oxygen Group
- Generally non-metals
Halogen Group (Group 17) – has 7 valence electrons
- Most active non-metals
- Never found free in nature
- Salt former
- Exist in all three states of matter (Solid, Liquid, and Gas)
Noble Gasses (Group 18) – Elements have 8 valence electrons except Helium
- Most stable elements
- Unreactive, non-reactive; Inert Elements
- Colorless gasses
Groups 3-12 (Transition Metals) – has 2 valence electrons

PERIODIC TRENDS
- The most chemically reactive metals are on the lower left portion of the periodic table

Valence Electron determine the reactivity of some elements ( - right to left is increasing; - left to right is decreasing)

In a period, the reactivity of metals decreases from left to right

In a group, the reactivity of metals increases from top to bottom
Metallic Property – relates to how easy, it is for an atom to lose electron
Non-Metallic Property – relates to how easy, it is for an atom to gain electron
Metals – on the left side of the periodic table ( malleable, ductile, luster, and good conductor of heat)
Non-Metals – on the right side of the periodic table
Metalloids – on the staircase part of the periodic table