JGS 211 Test

Mathematics in the foundation phase:

What is Mathematics?
 A language that makes use of symbols and notations for describing numerical,
geometric and graphical relationships.
 A human activity that involves observing, representing and investigating
patterns and qualitative relationships in physical and social phenomena and
between mathematical objects themselves.
 It helps to develop mental processes that enhance logical and critical thinking.
Specific aims with the teaching and learning of mathematics:
 Critical awareness of how mathematical relationships are used in social,
environmental, cultural and economic relations.
 Confidence and competence to deal with any mathematical situation without
being hindered by a fear of mathematics.
 A spirit of curiosity and a love of Mathematics.
 Appreciation for the beauty and elegance of mathematics.
 Recognition that Mathematics is a creative part of human activity.
 Deep conceptual understanding in order to make sense of Mathematics
Specific skills to develop essential mathematical skills the learner should:
 Develop the correct use of the language of Mathematics.
 Develop number vocabulary, number concept and calculation and application
skills.
 Learn to listen, communicate, think, reason logically and apply the
mathematical knowledge gained.
 Learn to investigate, analyse, represent and interpret information.
 Learn to pose and solve problems.
 Build an awareness of the important role that Mathematics plays in real-life
situations, including the personal development of the learner.
5 Content Areas:
1. Numbers, Operations and Relationships
2. Patterns, Functions and Algebra
3. Space and Shape (Geometry)
4. Measurement
5. Data Handling (Statistics)
What is a number frieze for?:
 Incidental recognition of number symbols
 Learn that dots/symbols represent something
 Learn to read and write number symbols (1) and number names (one)
NB aspects on how children learn:
1. Children progress through identifiable stages of thinking, THUS teach to the
developmental characteristics of learners.
2. Learners are actively involved in the learning process, THUS actively involve
learners in maths activities.
3. Learning proceeds from the concrete to the abstract, THUS move learning from
concrete to abstract.
4. Learners need opportunities for talking / communicating their ideas with others,
THUS use communication to encourage understanding.
Numbers, Operations and Relationships: Counting and Introduction to Number
Sense:
What is counting:
 A process by which children call number values by name.
 The process of determining the number of elements of a finite set of objects.
Why teaching and counting:
 Meaningful counting activities help learners in developing two separate skills:
o Fluency with the counting of words and their sequence
o The ability to connect this sequence in a oneto-one correspondence to
the object being counted
Types of counting:
 Verbal counting:
o Reciting the counting sequence in order from memory.
 Object counting:
o The process of matching a number in an ordered sequence with every
element of a set, with the aim of finding out “how many” are there. The
last number assigned is the cardinal number of the set.
Counting as the origin of a number sense:
 Learning to count is a great achievement in a child’s life. Although counting
itself does not equate to an understanding of number, it is often seen as a
starting point of developing number sense.
 Many of the mathematical concepts that learners learn in the first few years of
school are closely tied to counting.
Teaching children through play:
 Song and rhymes are a fun way to teach
 Advantages of songs and rhymes:
o Repetition
o Retention in memory
o Play pedagogy (teaching through play)
o Cooperative teaching and learning
o Peer learning
The importance of 10 fingers in counting:
 In the beginning, people did all their counting on their fingers. Because they
had ten fingers, they counted things by tens. They would count up to ten fingers
and then start again. Ten became a sort of stopping place in counting. So the
first ten numbers were given special names.
 People soon decided that the number 100 was also a stopping place because
it was ten of something -it was 10 tens. So they gave it a special name too.
1,000 was special because it was also ten of something – 10 hundred.
3 types of knowledge:
Type of knowledge Explanation
Physical knowledge Manipulating counting objects in the
counting process through the use of
sense (feeling/touching while
counting) and body (e.g. jumping or
clapping) while counting
Social knowledge Learning the number names and
counting sequence through practice and
repetition (counting rhymes, songs and
games). Also, learning to recognise and
write number symbols and words
through social interaction.
Conceptual knowledge Knowledge of counting principles and
strategies (understanding concepts such
as counting on, counting back, etc.),
gained from physical and social
interaction with the environment.

Importance of counting:
 Counting is important because the meaning attached to counting is the key
conceptual idea on which all other number concepts are based.
 Children have often learnt the counting sequence as a rote procedure. They
need to learn the meaning of counting by using counting skills in a variety of
meaningful situations.
 Using counting to solve number problems shows children that counting can be
used meaningfully in a variety of situations. This helps them understand and
appreciate counting as more than a rote procedure.
Verbal counting:
 Speaking every number out loud (or mentally) to keep track of progress.
 Also known as rote counting.
Object counting:
 Implies the process of matching a number in an ordered sequence with a
collection of objects in a set.
 Object counting includes correspondence and cardinality.

Rational counting:
 To count with understanding.
 Counting of real objects
Counting principles:
Principle Explanation
Stable order principle The idea that the counting sequence
stays consistent; children need to know
that the number words should be said in
the same order, that is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8 and not 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8
One-to-one correspondence The idea that each object being counted
must be given one count and only one
count. In the early stages, it is useful for
learners to tag each item as they count it
and to move the item out of the way as it
is counted
Abstraction The idea that the quantity can be
represented verbally, physically e.g. 5
can be represented by 5 similar objects,
5 invisible/imaginative things or
symbolically (symbol 5)
Cardinality The concept that the last word said
stands for the total number of objects in
the set. The cardinal number tells ‘how
many’
Order irrelevance principle The idea that the counting of object can
begin with any object in a set and the
total will still be the same. Children need
to know that it does not matter where
they start counting, as long as each
object is counted only once
Movement and magnitude The idea that, as one moves up the
counting sequence, the quantity
increases by 1 or by whatever number is
being counted for example counting in
2s, 3s etc.

Natural number: A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and also
label.
Whole number: A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and also
label.
Rational number: A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and also
label.
Ordinal numbers: An Ordinal Number is a number that tells the position of something
in a list, such as 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th etc. Most ordinal numbers end in "th" except
for: one ⇒ first (1st) two ⇒ second (2nd) three ⇒ third (3rd)
Nominal numbers: Nominal Number. more ... A number used only as a name, or to
identify something (not as an actual value or position) Examples: · the number on the
back of a footballer: "8"
Odd numbers: Odd numbers can NOT be divided evenly into groups of two. The
number five can be divided into two groups of two and one group of one.
Even numbers: End with a digit of 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8. Versus Odd numbers always end
with a digit of 1, 3, 5, 7, or 9.
Approaches to Mathematics Learning and Teaching:
Four important aspects on how children learn:
1. Children progress through identifiable stages of thinking, THUS teach to the
developmental characteristics of learners
2. Learners are actively involved in the learning process, THUS actively involve
learners in Math activities
3. Learning proceeds from the concrete to the abstract, THUS move learning from
concrete to abstract
4. Learners need opportunities for talking / communicating their ideas with others,
THUS use communication to encourage understanding
Developmental characteristics of FP learners:
Cognitive (thinking and learning) Implications for teachers
 Piaget – concrete operational  Use everyday experiences to
 Able to focus on one idea at a time connect Math concepts to
 Irreversibility children’s lives
 Begin to understand ideas  Break tasks into parts
beyond first hand concrete  Use questions to stimulate
experiences thinking

Physical characteristics Implications for teacher

 Developing control over large and  Provide short, hands-on activities
small muscle skills with choice and opportunity for
 Short attention span movement
 Tire easily  Focus more on process than
product


Social characteristics Implications for teacher

 Egocentric  Encourage friendship skills,
 Developing sense of self and taking turns, working with another
abilities person
 May have best friend and exclude  Provide positive support,
others challenge and feedback
 Learning to express oneself and  Allow to make own plans for
make decisions manipulating things in the
environment and in solving
problems
Moving learning from concrete to abstract:
Level 1: Concrete
 3D / Kinesthetic stage
 Thinking requires to the use of real / concrete objects. (Manipulatives, Models)
 Use body and senses to learn
 Need to be physically involved (see, hear, touch, smell and even taste real
objects).
Level 2: Semi-concrete:
 Two-dimensional or pictorial stage
 Working with representations, e.g. drawings, pictures, dominoes, dice, etc.
 Thinking dependent on representations of real objects.
 Do not need concrete objects to solve math problem, but they still need to use
things that represent (stand for) the real objects
Level 3: Abstract:
 Working with symbolic representations, e.g. words, numbers.
 Symbols represent concrete objects.
 Can solve Maths problems mentally (in their minds).
Different approaches to teach mathematics:
 Traditional
 Constructivist
 Brain-compatible
 Problem-solving approach
 Constance Kamii
o reformulating goals and objectives; re-conceptualizing role of the
teacher
Teaching mathematics through problem-solving:
What is the problem?
 A problem is an unknown situation that requires a solution that is not obvious
and requires analytical skills to be exercised.
Routine and Non-Routine problems:
Routine problem Non-Routine problem
A straightforward problem with an True problems that require learners to
obvious solution think, because the mathematical
procedures that must be followed to
solve them are NOT obvious to learners.
Polya’s problem solving model:
 Step 1: Understand the problem (see)
 Step 2: Make a plan (plan)
 Step 3: Carry out the plan (do)
 Step 4: Check the plan (check)
 Step 5: Communicate the solution (talk)
The Foundation Phase Learner:
CAPS Policy statement:
 Aims to develop “the kind of learner envisaged is one who will be inspired by
values, based on respect for democracy, equality, human dignity, life and social
justice (DBE, 2002: 3)
 According to the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, (1996) and DBE
NCS, learners will be able to make informed decisions regarding “personal,
community and environmental health” and “should know and exercise rights
and responsibilities as guaranteed in the constitution”
 The curriculum in the FP guides the teacher in determining :what knowledge,
skills, and values and attitudes you want learners to learn and develop
Who are the Foundation Phase learners?:
Physical:
 Learning is effective using free play
 Enjoy and learn from cooperative games
 Enjoy small group interactions
 Improved body coordination and better muscle coordination is observed
 Reliance on adult modelling and directing their behaviour and actions is still
important
 Still need periods of rest during the day and between activities
Intellectual:
 Vocabulary may still be limited but their language development is more
noticeable and better influenced
 Use questions to explore new constructs or knowledge – ask “why” often
 Comfortable communicating in groups
 Eagerly learn from their peers and need guidance from an older person or adult
 Can make most sense of things they are engaged with in the “now” – future and
past experiences are not too emphasised
Social:
 Play is an important part of learning
 Will try new activities but need adult praise
 Eager to try new activities, especially when led by an adult
 Will explore more confidently, and open to trying new equipment and play
materials
Emotional:
 Eager to identify with older children who have observable common
characteristics, especially at play
 Enjoy more responsibilities and may even show selfishness in maintaining their
role
 Can still feel fearful of new or intimidating activities, strange people and / or
unknown environments
 Comfortable in same-sex peer groups
 Moving towards appreciating differences of opinion
What is constructivism:
 Learners bring their personal experiences into the classroom and these
experiences have a tremendous impact on students' views of how the world
works. Students come to learning situations with a variety of knowledge,
feelings, and skills, and this is where learning should begin.
 Create real-world environments that employ the context in which learning is
relevant

Representation of quantities and numbers:

 Through teaching counting, the learner’s gain knowledge about quantity and
numbers expand.
 They realize that to communicate their thoughts about numbers, they need to
represent them physically, verbally or in writing.
 Some challenges in counting, however, comes from having to make a
connection between a number name “five”, a number symbol “5” and a quantity
“5 objects”
 In the Foundation phase, an essential aspect of representation is learning to
read and write numerals
 How to connect numerals with written and spoken words and with concepts
they represent
Patterns:
 They provide order and predictability
 They help children learn, remember and anticipate what comes next
 They provide a foundation for many mathematics concepts
 Learning about patterns in the early years set the stage for the future
understanding of algebraic concepts
Number symbols:
 An awareness of the relationship between number and quantity
 An understanding of number symbols, vocabulary, and meaning
 The ability to engage in systematic counting — including notions of cardinality
and ordinality
 An awareness of magnitude and comparisons between different magnitudes
 An understanding of different representations of number
 Competence with simple mathematical operations
 An awareness of number patterns including recognising missing numbers
Exploring number concepts:
 To develop number concepts, learners need to move away from counting for
understanding to grasping of relationship between numbers
 Learners use the number skills and the facts they already know about numbers
to discover new relationships between numbers.
 Example if children understand that to get 5 means that you count 2 on from 3
different ways. This will help learners to discover relationships that will support
the connection of new knowledge to already existing ideas
 There are key points to number relation that are central to understanding
numbers.
 Relationships of more or less and equal
 Relationship of double (near double)
 Part-part relationship
 The special relationship between the numbers 5 and 10
Basic operations:

Four basic operations:

Operation Operational sign Answer/Result
Addition + Sum
Subtraction - Difference
Multiplication x Product
Division ÷ Quotient

Opposite/inverse operations:
 Subtraction is the inverse operation of addition.
 Division is the inverse operation of multiplication.
Addition:
 Addition means to make more, to increase, to find the sum, to add. It basically
involves the union (put together) of two (or more) sets. Addition entails the
grouping or joining of two or more numbers as a single number.
 We use the ‘plus’ sign (+) to show addition, e.g. : 6 + 3 = 9.
 Addition is a reversible (inverse) operation of subtraction, i.e. 6 + 3 = 9 and 9 –
3 = 6.
 Addition has commutative property – that means that the order in which the
numbers are added does not matter, i.e. 6 + 3 = 3 + 6.
Subtraction:
 Subtraction means to make less, to decrease, to find the difference, to subtract.
 Subtraction involves the removal of a part of a number and retaining the rest,
resulting in a decrease of the number.
 We use the ‘minus’ sign (–) to show subtraction. For example: 9 – 3 = 6 or 9 –
6 = 3.
 Subtraction is NOT commutative, i.e. 9 – 3 in NOT equal to 3 – 9.
 The order in which the numbers are subtracted is important.
Multiplication:
 Multiplication has its roots in repeated addition, e.g. 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 represents:
Add 5 four times.
 The same calculation can be written in short as 5 x 4.
 Multiplication is sometimes called the shortened form of addition or “repeated
addition”.
 In order to understand multiplication, a learner should understand what groups
of equal quantities are. Then they can learn that multiplication is the shorthand
way of adding equal quantities, i.e. 4 x 5 is the same as 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 (four times
five).
Division:
 Division means to share equally, to subtract a number of times, to find the
quotient of or to divide. • We use the “÷” sign to show division.
 For example: 18 – 6 – 6 – 6 = 18 ÷ 6 = 3 or 18 ÷ 3 = 6.
 The main concepts that serve as pre-cursors for division are – repeated
subtraction and – sharing and grouping.
 These concepts should be firmly established before introducing learners to
division in a more formal way.
Guidelines for progression and individualised learning:
 Number range: Start with small numbers and gradually increase the number
range. To individualise learning, increase or decrease the size of the numbers
to match your learners’ grade and ability level.
 Position of the unknown: To progress from simple to more complex, start by
using smaller numbers with exercises where the result is unknown (i.e. 5 + 2 =
). To increase the difficulty level, change the position of the unknown, and on
an advanced level, work with larger numbers.
 Multiple operations: At first provide activities that focus on one operation (e.g.
addition only), Thereafter, increase the number range and give mixed types
addition exercises. On an advanced level, use multiple operations (e.g.
addition, subtraction, multiplication)
Mental mathematics:
 Some say it is all about memorising the basic combinations and multiplication
tables
 Others refer to it as the ability to perform simple calculations without the need
for any tool other than one’s mind
 It is important for learners to develop and practise their MM skills to do quick
calculations based on their knowledge of addition, subtraction, the
multiplication tables and division
Basic facts:
 two 1-digit addends (numbers to be added)
 two 1-digit factors (numbers to be multiplied)
 and their sum or product (result/answer)
 That means both numbers involved in the operation are less than ten (1-digit)
Key principles for basic fact practice:
 First understanding, then memorising. Focus on memorising facts learners
already understand.
 MM EVERY DAY; short sessions (5 – 10 minutes).
 Practise to develop fluency. Repetition to wire into long-term memory
 Review previously learned facts.
 MM activities must be varied, interesting, challenging and presented with
enthusiasm.
 MM must build learners’ confidence. Praise learners for good efforts.
 Keep record of learners’ progress. ASSESS!
Number sense and counting:
Number sense:
 Number sense is not something that some have and some don’t, but is an
ongoing process that all learners need to acquire.
 Counting is often seen as the starting point of developing number sense, but
young learners develop a sense of number even before they begin to count.
 A strong number sense means that the learner has:
o A sense of the size or the “how-many-ness” of a number.
o The ability to break down a number, reorganise it and build it up again
in a variety of ways.
o The ability to use a variety of calculation methods to solve problems.
o The ability to apply their knowledge of numbers to solve problems.
Rote counting:
 Rote counting (Parrot-like counting) implies that a learner can recite the
number names in the correct order from memory, e.g. the learner says: “One
– two – three – four – five – six – seven – eight – nine – ten” (in the correct
sequence without using objects).
 Rote counting is important in the Foundation Phase, because it teaches
learners the sequence and the language of numbers. Through rote counting,
they also gain understanding of the rhythm and pattern that is within numbers.
 Some learners may know some number names, but not necessarily the
correct sequence, therefore, do not limit their counting experiences – they
need frequent and repeated practise to develop rote counting skills.
Counting principles:
 The object to be counted must be assigned one number name only. A one-
to-one correspondence between each bottle cap and the number name was
established.
 The number-name sequence (“One, two, three, …”) must be used in a fixed
order every time a group of objects is counted, starting from “one”. The
learner started with “one” and counted “two, three, four” in a specific order.
 The last number name used gives the total number of objects. This principle
provides the cardinal number – that tells us “how many”. Regardless of
which object is counted first or the order in which they are counted, the last
object named always gives the total number.
 The order in which the objects are counted does not matter. The result will
stay the same irrespective of the order in which the objects are counted. A
learner can start counting any object in a group and count them in any order.
Levels in counting and number sense:
Level 1: Count all
 The learner counts all the objects one by one to find the total number of
objects
Level 2: Count on
 Learners with more counting experience (later in the grade 1 year), will be
able to count on by ones from the first group of objects to find the total. This
learner can start at any number and proceed from there
Level 3: Breaking down and building up
 Learners need to learn that when we break groups of objects into parts in
different ways, their totals remain the same.
Characteristics of our number system:
 Place value. The position of a digit represents its value. The position of digits
in different places in the number represents a value of groups of tens,
hundreds, thousands, etc.
 Base of ten. Base means collection or group. In our number system, ten is
the value that determines a new group and is represented by 10. Ten digits
are used, i.e. 0 – 9.
 Use of zero. The symbol for zero, i.e. 0, represents the absence of
something.
 Additive property. Numbers can be calculated with respect to place value,
for example: 123 represent the number that is the sum of 100 + 20 + 3.
Fractions:
What is a fraction:
 The word “fraction” simply means “part of a whole”
 Important is that the parts are EQUAL
 Children have a natural understanding of and an interest in parts and wholes,
and this is actually the basis for understanding fractions
 In the Foundation Phase, we start off with halves, thirds and fourths
(quarters); because these are the fractions we deal with most frequently in
everyday life.
Three meanings of fraction:
 Part-whole or equal parts of a whole:
o The part-whole meaning of a fraction indicates that a whole has been
2
divided into equal parts, e.g. the fraction 3 indicates that the whole has
been divided into three equal parts and that two of these parts are
selected.
 Quotient and:
2
o The fraction 3 may also be considered as a quotient, 2 ÷ 3.
 Ratio:
2
o The fraction 3 may also represent ratio.

Underlying concepts for understanding fractions in the foundation phase:

The concepts associated with fractions are complex, however, two rather simple, but
powerful ideas (concepts) can be seen as underlying concepts of understanding
fractions, i.e.
 Equal sharing of the whole:
o The important idea in equal sharing of the whole is the idea of making
equal shares by separating a whole into equal parts.
o So, equal sharing refers to sharing a whole equally among a specified
number.
 Equivalence:
o Equivalence focuses on different representations of the same quantity.
Fractions in the Foundation Phase focus on:
 Parts, wholes and sharing fairly;
 Unitary and non-unitary fractions;
 Equivalent fractions;
 Fraction notation; and
 Comparing, ordering and counting with fractions.
Fraction work in the Foundation Phase should be practical and the following
words and phrases must be used frequently:
 Fair share, share equally;
 Between, divide by;
 Equal parts, whole;
 Half, third, quarter and fraction
Different kinds of wholes:
 A very important aspect regarding fractions that you need to be aware of is
that there are different kinds of wholes.
 The whole is whatever is specified as the whole.
 A whole can be:
o A single object
o A collection of objects
o A whole number
Parts and wholes:
 It is important that learners develop the understanding as well as the
language to explain that:
o To find halves, we must share a whole into two equal parts.
o To find quarters, we must share a whole into four equal parts.
o To find thirds, we must share a whole into three equal parts.
o To find fifths, we must share a whole into five equal parts, etc.
Sharing fairly:
 Did you know that sharing fairly is actually the beginning of understanding
fractions?
 In most sharing cases there will be no left over parts, but sometimes equal
sharing may involve left over parts that will results in fractional parts when it is
shared.
 Foundation Phase learners must be exposed to practical sharing situations
that are part of their everyday lives, e.g. food, books, pencils, money, mass,
length and capacity.
Unitary (Unit) and non-unitary (non-unit) fractions:
 Unitary:
o One part of a whole. The whole is shared into four equal parts. This
part is one quarter
 Non-unitary:
o More than one part of the whole. The whole is shared into four equal
parts. This part is three quarters
Progress from 3D to symbolic:
Step 1: Concrete (3D):
 Division of whole objects to establish the part-whole meaning of fractions.
 The idea of separating a whole (e.g. an apple, slice of bread, paper strip) into
equal shares: halves – quarters – thirds – etc.
 Use the fraction names (e.g. one half, two thirds) from the beginning.
Step 2: Semi-concrete (2D):
 Division of whole semi-concrete materials (e.g. shapes, diagrams, drawings).
 Learners must do the partitioning (division) themselves. They use semi-
concrete materials to show equal parts of the whole.
Step 3: Abstract/Symbolic (words, symbols):
 As learners develop the idea of equal parts, start by using the singular
expression, a half, a quarter, one third and eventually introduce the words
halves, quarters, thirds, and so on.
 Learners need to make the connection that the “s” refers to more that one
fractional part of the whole.
 Using the written fraction symbol may only be introduced once learners can
name, count and compare fractions using SPOKEN language.
Counting with fractions:
 Once learners are familiar with the words for fraction parts, they can begin
counting the fractional parts.
 Counting fraction parts should, at the beginning, not be more difficult than
counting any other real objects, like counting apples or fingers!
 Learners need to know what fractional parts they are counting.
Patterns, functions and algebra:
 Mathematics is often called the “study of patterns”. We find patterns
everywhere in our world, but also in all areas of Mathematics. Investigating,
creating and describing patterns are part of doing Mathematics and leads the
way towards algebraic thinking. Through patterning learners learn skills like
observing, describing, explaining, generalising, creating and predicting.
What is a pattern:
 A design
When is a pattern a pattern:
 In the most general sense, a pattern can be described as a core that is
repeated over and over following a specific rule.
Logic rule involved in patters:
 To continue or complete a pattern, a RULE – which is consistent and
predictable – must be followed. Following the rule (repeating the core
elements in the same order) enables us to make predictions (i.e. we can tell
what comes next by identifying and following the rule).
 We learn something about the regularity in the pattern.
Regularity:
 Patterning enables us to discover and create regularities in things that:
o Move
o See
o Hear
Two types of patterns for foundation phase:
 Repeating patterns:
o A pattern that has a core that continuously repeats in the same order
 Growing patterns:
o Growing patterns are patterns that grow (increase) and/or shrink
(decrease).
o Growing patterns are patterns in which every element in the pattern is
related to the preceding element in the pattern in the same way.
Growing patterns increase or decrease systematically.
Natural patterns:
 Natural patterns are those patterns presented by nature.
 The world around us is not a chaotic place, but one that is ruled by order and
precision.
Manmade patterns:
 Patterns created by people
Functions:
 A function can be described as a rule that matches two sets of numbers in
such a way that for each first number there is only one possible second
number according to the rule.
Geometry Space and shape:
 Geometry is the study of spatial relationships that can be found in the three-
dimensional space we live in and on any two-dimensional surface in this
three-dimensional space.
 Geometry is concerned with:
o Shapes and properties - the way things look;
o Structure - the way things are put together;
o Transformations (the way things slide, flip or turn - including
symmetry); and
o Location and spatial relationships (position, movement, direction -
where we are relative to other things and getting from one location to
the other).
To help learners become aware of shapes, you should involve them actively by
including the following skills:
 Visual skills: include all the activities involved in the act of looking. Learners
observe, compare and sort shapes by seeing that one is the same or different
from another (based on properties).
 Tactile skills: include handling shapes to feel if they are the same or
different. It also involves, constructing with shapes/objects and working with
their hands to draw, cut out or paste shapes/objects.
 Verbal skills: include being able to describe the shapes according to the
properties; the activities involved in the act of talking.
 Movement (kinaesthetic) skills: include being able to, amongst other ways of
moving, climb over and onto, crawl through, walk and run to or from and jump
on or off objects while being aware of their bodies in space.
 Mental skills: include all the activities that are involved in the thinking
process; being able to recognise, describe and label a shape.
Tangram:
 A tangram is a Chinese geometric puzzle, which is a square divided into
seven pieces. The pieces can be arranged into various other shapes.
 The seven pieces are made up of: five triangles, one square and one
parallelogram
 All seven pieces must be used to make the puzzle
Tangrams teach concepts and skills like:
 Spatial relationships
 Geometric terms and shapes
 Manipulation of shapes: orientation, rotation etc
 Problem solving
 Logic and logical thinking
 Imagination
Properties:
 Faces:
o The flat surface of a 3-D object is its face.
 Edges:
o An edge is a line that marks the boundary between one thing and
another. The edge of an object shows its outline. (Learners in Grade 1
and will use the word “side”, but by Grade 3, they should be exposed to
the word “edge”.)
 Bases:
o A base is the bottom surface of the object. In the table examining the
properties of objects we saw that a pyramid can have a square or
triangular base. It can also have a rectangular base.
 Vertices:
o The point where two lines meet is called the vertex (corner).
Symmetry:
 In Geometry, transformation means movement that does not change the size
or shape of the object moved (Van de Walle 2006:209). Generally,
transformations contain three basic aspects, i.e. translations (to slide),
reflection (to flip over), and rotation (to turn). Symmetry is also included under
the study of transformations.
 In the Foundation Phase we mainly concentrate on symmetry, and in
particular line symmetry.
Measurement:
 Measurement is a process by which a number is assigned to an attribute of an
object or event
 Measurement is a way to compare objects or events with a unit that has the
same attribute, e.g. lengths are compared to units of lengths, capacity to units
of capacity, time to units of time and so on.
Measurement process:
Step 1:
 Learners must understand the attribute they are going to measure
 All measuring activities must start with activities where NO measuring units
are involved and where learners measure through comparison.
 In this step learner do not measure, but COMPARE one object with another to
determine its measurement.
Step 2:
 Learners must understand what a unit of measure is and how to use it to find
a measurement.
 Use models of the units of measure, i.e. real concrete objects to measure
with, e.g. body parts, paper clips, sticks, straws, cut-out footprints, and so on.
Step 3:
 Learners need to acquire an understanding of the tools or instruments we use
to measure, i.e. they need to understand how measuring instruments
work and how to use them
 The ruler is usually the first measuring instrument that Foundation Phase
learners learn to understand and use.
Estimation:
 Helps learners focus on the attribute being measured and the measurement
process.
 Estimation brings an element of excitement into the measurement process –
and serves as intrinsic motivation. It is fun for learners to see how close their
“guess” is to the real measurement.
 It helps learners develop an understanding for a unit of measure. If they need
to estimate the measure of their books in centimetres, they have to think
about the size of a cm.
Length:
 Length is the measurement of something from one end to the other. Through
length we determine how tall, how long, how short, how far and how long
around an object.
 We measure the length of something in millimetre (mm), centimetre (cm),
metre (m) and kilometre (km).
Length can be understood as:
 An attribute for long, this objects
 The distance between two points (vocabulary such as nearer and farther may
be used when comparing distances)
 The distance around your waist (learners can use string to compare their
waists, or to compare their wrists with their ankles)
Perimeter:
 The PERIMETER or a shape is the distance around the shape. It is the length
of the boundary around the outside of the shape.
Area:
 AREA is the space we want to measure within the perimeter – the size of the
surface
Mass:
 Mass is a measure of how much matter an object has
Mass vs weight:
 ‘MASS’ is NOT the same as ‘WEIGHT’.
 WEIGHT is determined by the pull of gravity of the Earth against the mass or
quantity of the item. An object's weight depends on its environment, while its
mass does not.
 The weight of an object with a mass of 60 kilograms on the surface of the
earth will, for example be much less on the moon. Further away from Earth in
Space the object may even become ‘weightless’.
 THE MASS will, however, REMAIN THE SAME ANYWHERE!
 Because mass and weight would be the same on Earth, we do not go to a lot
of trouble to correct learners in the Foundation
 Phase if they use the terms interchangeably. The correct terminology is that
we measure mass.
Capacity:
 Capacity is a measure of the contents of a container (how full or how empty a
container is).
 We use millimetre and litre units to measure capacity
Capacity vs volume:
 Volume and capacity are not exactly the same.
 The volume of an object is the amount of space it occupies while capacity
refers to how much a container can hold.