Introduction to Exploration Activity

4. Exploration Tecniques Generalities

Tirana, 2019
Introduction to Exploration Activities
Tirana, 2018

PROGRAMME

1. Exploration Activity Overview

What is exploration and why we do that: the scenario
Overview of process and time frame of Exploration Activity

2. Sedimentary Basins (Hydrocarbon Habitat & Distribution)

3. The Hydrocarbon System

Origin of Oil & Gas, Source Rocks, generation, migration and accumulation of O&G.
Reservoir and Seal rocks, structural and stratigraphic Traps.
Introduction to Basin Modelling

4. Exploration Techniques Generalities

Seismic, non-seismic, remote sensing, field surveys.
Acquisition, Processing and interpretation overview.
Advancements of integrated interpretation

5. From Play to Prospect Evaluation

Play Concept, Fairways Analysis and Mapping
Play & Prospect Generation
Mapping, Volume Evaluation (Resources Estimate)
Risk Analysis

6. New Field Wildcat (Drilling)

Proposals and Ranking
Follow-Up
Post-Drilling Result Analysis (Appraisal)

7. Overview of Economics: Value Creation Concept

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The (Reflection) Seismic Method

Of all the indirect methods of investigation, which include gravimetric,

magnetic, electric and sonic, the seismic is by far the preferred in hydrocarbons
exploration.

The reason is that it compounds a good resolution capability with the easiness
of acquisition and with a reasonably low cost, compared with the amount of
information it can generate.

Virtually all the pre-drill exploration analyses and interpretations are carried
out on the basis of seismic data.

Seismic data provide information on:

• geometry and size of the trap

• HC migration paths
• timing of trap formation
• direct presence of hydrocarbon (DHI, Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators)
• information regarding velocity, density, fluid content

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Reflection Seismic - Principles

 a source sends acoustic energy into the ground

 the resulting echoes from underground rocks are detected by seismic sensors
(geophones) at the surface

 the sensors transform the echoes into electrical signals proportional to the
intensity of the echoes

 the signals are recorded on magnetic tapes for computer processing

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Reflection Seismic - Principles

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Reflection Seismic - Principles

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Land Data Acquisition

Energy sources: two main different kind of sources for land acquisition can be

recognized:

 Gelatin Dynamite

 Vibrators

Dynamite is the oldest and is still very common.

The charge is located into a hole (few meter deep) and when the receivers are

ready it is fired.

It is repeated for every planned shot point. In case of a 3D survey, they can

be thousands.

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Land Data Acquisition: Energy Source

Dinamite

Vibroseis

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Land Data Acquisition

Dynamite

Vibroseis Geophonesi

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Geophone
Marine Data Acquisition: Energy Source – Air gun

Pneumatic chambers pressurized with

compress air at pressure from 14 to 21
Mpa (140 to 200 atm).

Airguns

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Marine 2D Data Acquisition: Recording

Hydrophone
Streamer
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Marine 3D Data Acquisition: Geometry

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Marine 3D Data Acquisition: Recording

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Marine 3D Data Acquisition: Airguns

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Marine 3D Data Acquisition: Airguns close-up

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Seismic Data Acquisition: Planning Targets

define the best theoretical parameters, to obtain the best possible quality

design the operative lay-out

evaluate the operative feasibility of the proposed acquisition parameters

estimate time and costs of the proposed acquisition configuration and, in case, of

other alternative options

estimate the maximum obtainable theoretical resolution (vertical and lateral)

and, consequently, the minimum resolvable thickness of the layers

suggest the processing sequence,

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Marine Seismic Data Acquisition: Planning

Logistic constraints to consider:

 Water Depth and coast morphology

 Swell, dominant wind and currents data
 Obstructions (platforms, rigs, vessels, etc)
 Port and supply facilities
 River discharge
 Environment (HSE)
 Political issues and associated risk

PREPLOT SPECIFICATIONS
GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS
Technical Feasibility Study focussed on:
CABLES CDP LINES
Number of cables 4 CDP interval (dX) 6.25 m
Cable interval 75.00 m CDP line interval (dY) 18.75 m
 Objectives to be investigated Cable length 4,800.00 m First CDP line number 1001
Trace length 12.50 m Line direction 142.00 °
 Depth to target
SOURCES SAIL LINES
 Type of target (lithology, bedding attitude) Number of sources 2.00 Sail line interval 150.00 m
Source interval 37.50 m Sail line prefix N/A
 Lay Out (pre-Plot) Shot point interval 18.75 m
First shot point number 1001
 Cable Geometry and recording parameters NOMINALE COVERAGE 64 First sail line number 1004

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Marine Data Acquisition: Layout (2D and 3D)

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Reflection Seismic Principles

Reflection Coefficient

Reflection Reflection

I = Acoustic Impedence
I = ρV
ρ = Density
Refraction Refraction V = Velocity

Polarity Convention
AI RC Trace

-
+

- +

Wiggle Trace Display Variable Density Display

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Marine Data Acquisition: Processing

PROCESSING

Aim of the processing is to provide an image of the

subsurface that can be «READABLE», i.e.
INTERPRETABLE.
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Seismic Data Processing

Common Mid-Point
Result (simplified)

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Seismic Data Processing

Processing is a sequence of complex and time

consuming steps that require powerful computers to
be carried out.

To process a large 3D survey may take months.

The two most important steps are STACK and

MIGRATION

STACK

MIGRATION

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Seismic Data Processing
NMO (Normal Move Out): correction to have the
Stack Principles optimum stack, using seismic velocities.

Normal Move Out

Optimum Stack

Stacking velocities will be eventually used for the depth conversion

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Seismic Data Processing

MIGRATION

Migration
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Seismic Data Processing

Stack

Migrated

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Seismic Data: 2D Line

2D SEISMIC LINE
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Seismic Data: 3D Cube

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Seismic Data: Power of 3D Cube

The 3D seismic consists of VOLUMES of data with a full sampling (a few

dozen metres ) of the sub-surface.

The interpretation is in workstation in order to maximise the extraction of

information: both traditional reflectivity volumes and special volumes
(coherence, width, acoustic impedance, different offsets, in-depth
volumes, etc..) are used

The 3D seismic is close to resolving the critical problem of MIGRATION: to

bring the reflectors back to their correct position under the surface.

The detail obtained (horizontal and vertical resolution) is not necessarily

better compared to the 2D seismic but there is always the possibility of
improving and datum redundancy

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Seismic Data Interpretation: 2D vs 3D

3D
2D
Comparison of 2D interpretation and 3D interpretation on the same area: level of details!!
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Seismic Data Interpretation: Data Visualisation Room

 Powered by advanced
supercomputer power, rapid data
loading, high speed networking
and high-resolution graphics,
visualization centres provide the
ability to display and manipulate
complex volumes of 3D data in a
collaborative, team environment.

 The result is …. better

interpretation … of more data … in
less time

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Seismic Data Interpretation: E & P Workflow

2D and 3D seismic interpretation:

to define Play
to generate Prospect
to move from exploration to development

New venture

Basin &
Play Analysis
Prospect
generation
Well Planning &
Drilling
Appraisal Phase

Reservoir Model
& Production

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Seismic Data Interpretation

Traveltime (Two Way Time - TWT) interpretation gives present and past
structural information

geometry and amplitude of seismic reflections can indicate stratigraphy and

depositional environment

horizon amplitude maps can lead to porosity or reservoir quality maps

seismic inversion (impedance) leads to porosity, flow simulation, pressure

decay curves (reservoir quality & efficiency).

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Seismic Data Interpretation: Structural Model

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Seismic Data Interpretation: Outcrop Analogues

NORMAL FAULTS

REVERSE FAULTS

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Seismic Data Interpretation: Outcrop Analogues

NORMAL FAULTS

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Seismic Data Interpretation: Continuity Analysis

The Continuity
Volume
Fracturation
Study

Total
Lineaments
Map

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Seismic Data Interpretation: Outcrop Analogues

Channel Fill

Outcrop Analogue

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Seismic Data Interpretation: Sequence stratigraphy

Seismic line un-interpreted and corresponding line drawing

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Seismic Data Interpretation – Lowstand System Tract

Play Scale Depositional System

Incised Valley Fill Incised Valley Incised Valley

Shelf

Incised Valley Fill

Prograding Shelf

Basin Floor
Distributary Channel

Channel Complex 39
Seismic Data Interpretation

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Seismic Data Interpretation
 depositional model (countinuity cube)

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4: Exploration Techniques Generalities - Seismic

•….or like this:

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Seismic Data : 2D - 3D Cost vs Benefit

One of the most obvious differences between 2D and 3D seismic is that 3D

imaging provides information continuously through the subsurface within the
bounds of the survey whereas 2D seismic reveals only strips of information.

2D

3D

High Res 3D
COST (Resolution)
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After: Cooper, N.M. 1 Mustagh Resources Ltd.,
Seismic Data : 2D - 3D Cost vs Benefit

2D cheaper than 3D…but not always

The cost of seismic methods is very dependent on

• Environment (increasing: marine, desert, agricultural, urban,

marshland, jungle, mountainous)
• Source

COST (environment, source, etc) 44

Seismic Data : 2D - 3D Cost vs Benefit

After Denis Babusiaux, 2007 : Oil and gas exploration and production: reserves, costs, contracts, pg 130

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Seismic Amplitude of Reflection & DHI

Basic Seismic Attributes Definitions:

• Bright spots: Local increase in amplitude on a seismic section (presumably caused

by a hydrocarbon accumulation)

• DHI or HCI: Measurement which indicates the presence or absence of a

hydrocarbon accumulation (bright spot, dim spot, flat spot, shadow zone, etc.)

• Phase (Polarity Change): Seismic peak changes to a trough (or vice versa)

• Dim Spot: Local decrease in reflection amplitude, generally occurs in low porosity
sands (10% to 15%)

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Seismic Amplitude of Reflection & DHI
Amplitude & DHI:

Source: “DHI’s in a challenging exploration scenario” Eni Wrokshop, Nov.2007

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Seismic Amplitude of Reflection & DHI
•… the big issue: OBVIOUS DHIs (Bright Spot with/out Flat Spot)

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Seismic Velocities & Pore Pressure Prediction Study

When planning a well it is very important to

carry out a subsurface pore pressure prediction PREDICTION
study.

Regional well data and seismic velocities (that

are affected by formation pressure) are used.

REGIONAL STUDIES SEISMIC VELOCITIES STUDY

Hydrostatic gradient =0.098 (fresh water) to 0.11 atm/m (very salty water)
Lithostatic (Overburden) gradient =0.20 (porous sands) to 0.285 (anhydrite) atm/m

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Seismic Velocities & Pore Pressure Prediction Study

Kg/cm2

Pore pressure studies based on seismic

velocities provide an image of overpressure
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zones within the section planned to be drilled by
the exploration well.
Seismic Velocities & Pore Pressure Prediction Study

Shale Pore Pressure vs Sand Pore Pressure

Geological Model 1

Press.

No sharp pressure drop or increase

No sharp pressure drop or increase

Depth

Shaly sequence with isolated sand bodies PPsand = PPsh

PP = Pore Pressure

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Seismic Velocities & Pore Pressure Prediction Study

Shale Pore Pressure vs Sand Pore Pressure

Geological Model 2
Press.

RISK: LOSS OF CIRCULATION

RISK: LOSS OF CIRCULATION

Depth

Shaly sequence with sand beds "in connection" with sea bed or PPsh > PPsand
shallower levels

PP = Pore Pressure

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Seismic Amplitude of Reflection & Pore Pressure Prediction Study

Shale Pore Pressure vs Sand Pore Pressure

Geological Model 3

Press.

RISK: KICK

RISK: KICK

Depth

Shaly sequence with sand beds "in connection" with deeper part
of the basin PPsand > PPsh

PP = Pore Pressure
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Pore Pressure Prediction vs. Seal Efficiency Study

This well was dry!

DEPTH

PRESSURE

SEAL INTEGRITY - A CAP ROCK CAN FRACTURE WHEN THE PRESSURE

WITHIN THE RESEVOIR EXCEEDS THE MINIMUM STRESS

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4: Exploration Techniques Generalities - Seismic

 AVO BASICS:

• In geophysics, amplitude versus offset (AVO)

or amplitude variation with offset is a variation
in seismic reflection amplitude with change in
distance between shotpoint (source) and
receiver.

• It is also referred as AVA (amplitude variation

with angle). As AVO studies are being done on
CMP data, the offset increases with the angle.

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4: Exploration Techniques Generalities - Seismic

 AVO BASICS:

• Typically amplitude decreases (falls) with

offset due to geometrical spreading,
attenuation and other factors. An AVO
anomaly can also include examples where
amplitude with offset falls at a lower rate
than the surrounding reflective events.

• An AVO anomaly is most commonly

expressed as increasing (rising) AVO in a
sedimentary section, often where the
hydrocarbon reservoir is "softer" (lower
acoustic impedance) than the surrounding
shales.

AVO effects on CDP gathers provide basic information on lithology and porefill of the rock under
investigation
Source ENI Manuals

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4: Exploration Techniques Generalities - Seismic

• AVO BASICS:

http://www.cseg.ca/publications/recorder/2000/11nov/nov00-amplitute-vs-offset.pdf

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4: Exploration Techniques Generalities - Seismic

AVO BASICS

• Two primary attributes are extracted from the CDP gathers after interpolation of a best-fit line
through reflection amplitudes taken at all offsets in each CDP and time sample (“two terms AVO
Shuey approximation”):
• Intercept (indicated as I, Ro, P-wave or sometimes A): amplitude of the zero-offset reflection
extrapolated from the best-fit line. It represents the expected zero-offset behaviour of the seismic event,
hence proportional to its Acoustic Impedance contrast
• Gradient (indicated as G or sometimes B): it is the slope of the best-fit line. It gives and indication of the
increasing or decreasing amplitude trend with offset

These two main attributes are usually combined to enhance the expected AVO responses.

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4: Exploration Techniques Generalities - Seismic

Veeken & Rauch Davis, 2007

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4: Exploration Techniques Generalities - Seismic

Dimming

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4: Exploration Techniques Generalities - Seismic

AVO BASICS

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4: Exploration Techniques Generalities - Seismic

AVO BASICS

Seismic and rock physics data quality is a very important factor in DHI/Amplitude Risk

Analysis.

Think and Learn as review many seismic amplitude anomaly characteristics in a systematic

and consistent manner –“There is no silver bullet characteristic.”

AVO “works” under the right circumstances, but is often misused,

 Amplitude may increase or decrease with increasing offset,

 works best when “calibrated” to a local area.

Overpressure has a dramatic affect of the recognition of oil DHI’s

 high GOR oils can resemble a gas.

Low saturation gas has a dramatic affect on seismic amplitudes.

Review Pitfall List before deciding DHI POS.

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