Seismic Interpretation

Introduction
• To find oil and gas accumulations or produce
them you need to understand Subsurface
Geology.

• This means mapping subsurface structure to

find structures where oil and gas may be
trapped, or mapping faults that may be
barriers to oil flow in a producing field.
Introduction
• One traditional way of understanding the
subsurface is from geological mapping at the
surface

• In many areas however, structure and

stratigraphy at depths of thousands of feet
cannot be extrapolated from geological
observation at the surface.
Introduction
• Geological knowledge then depends on
boreholes or wells

• Boreholes or wells give very detailed

information at the points on the map where
they are drilled. Interpolating between these
control points, or extrapolating away from them
into undrilled areas is where geophysical
methods can be most helpful.
• Use of gravity and magnetic observations
which respond to changes in rock density and
magnetization respectively. Seismic gives:

• High penetrative ability

• Better imaging/resolution
• Faster and relatively cheaper
Introduction
• Initially, seismic data were acquired along
straight lines (2-D seismic); shooting a number
of lines across an area gave us the data needed
to make a map

• In recent times, it has been realized that there

are big advantages to obtaining very closely
space data, for example as a number of parallel
straight lines very close together
• The result is very detailed information about
the subsurface in a 3-D cube (x and y }
directions horizontally on the surface, z
direction vertically downwards but in
reflection time. This is what is known as 3 -D
seismic.
Recap: Basic principles
1.Seismic acquisition
2.Seismic processing
3.Understanding the data
4.Seismic interpretation

8
Seismic Acquisition Offshore
1.An air gun towed behind the
survey ship transmits sound
waves through the water column
and into the subsurface
2.Changes in rock type or fluid
content reflect the sound waves
towards the surface
3.Receivers towed behind the
vessel record how long it takes for
the sound waves to return to the
surface
4.Sound waves reflected by different
boundaries arrive at different
times.
5.The same principles apply to
onshore acquisition
9
Seismic Acquisition Onshore
1.Onshore seismic acquisition requires an energy input from a
“thumper” truck or dynamite. Geophones arrayed in a line behind the
truck record the returning seismic signal.

Vibrator
Geophones (source)
(receivers)
Sub-horizontal
beds
Unconformity
Dipping beds

10
Seismic acquisition onshore
• Seismic horizons represent changes in density and allow the
subsurface geology to be interpreted.

Lithology change
Angular
unconformity
Lithology change

11
12
What is a reflector?
A seismic reflector is a boundary There are many reflectors
between beds with different on a seismic section. Major
properties. There may be a change changes in properties
of lithology or fluid fill from Bed 1 to usually produce strong,
Bed 2. These property changes continuous reflectors as
cause some sound waves to be shown by the arrow.
reflected towards the surface.

energy signal
source receiver

Bed 1
lower velocity
higher velocity

Bed 2

13
Understanding the data

• Common Depth Points (CDPs)

• Floating datum
• Two way time (TWT)
• Time versus depth

14
Common Depth Points
Common midpoint
above CDP

Sound sources Sound receivers

CDPs are defined as S 1 S2 S3 R3 R 2 R 1
‘the common reflecting

So
point at depth on a

d ve
un

cte wa
reflector or the halfway

fle d
wa

re un
point when a wave

ve

So
travels from a source to

in
a reflector to a receiver’. Change in lithology =
reflecting horizon

Common reflecting point or

common depth point (CDP)

15
Floating Datum

The floating datum line represents travel time between the recording surface
and the zero line (generally sea level). This travel time depends on rock
type, how weathered the rock is, and other factors.

The topographic elevation is the height above sea level of the surface along
which the seismic data were acquired.
16
Two Way Time (TWT)

Two way time (TWT) TWT

indicates the time required surface
for the seismic wave to 0
travel from a source to
some point below the 0.25 seconds
0.25 seconds
surface and back up to a
receiver.
0.5

In this example the TWT

is 0.5 seconds.
seconds

17
Time versus depth
• Two way time (TWT) does not equate directly to depth
• Depth of a specific reflector can be determined using boreholes/well
• For example, 926 m depth = 0.58 sec. TWT

288

0.58 sec 926 926 m

1865
18
m
• Seismic Data Interpretation
Syllabus
• Introduction to the fundamentals of seismic
interpretation.
• Topics to be covered in the lectures include:
– Time and depth sections,
– Artificial structure caused by velocity variations
– Unconformities, folds, faults, piercement structures
– Bright spots, dim spots, polarity reversals and flat spots,
– Time-structural maps, and seismic modelling.
– Practical work involves consistent interpretation of horizons
and faults on paper sections of 2D and 3D seismic data.
Seismic Interpretation

• Work from the top of the section, where clarity is

usually best, towards the bottom.

• Distinguish the major reflectors and geometries of

seismic sequences.

21
Top Down Approach
• Start at the top of the section, where definition is usually best
• Work down the section toward the zone where the signal to
noise ratio is reduced and the reflector definition is less clear

first

second

third

22
Reflector Character And
Geometry

Continuous
reflector
truncating
short ones
Next
continuous
reflector

Reflectors
onlapping
continuous
one

23
Definition
• Seismic Interpretation is the extraction of subsurface geologic
information from seismic data.

• Reflection seismic data comprise:

– Continuity of reflections indicating geologic structure.
– Variability of reflections indicating stratigraphy, fluids and reservoir
fabric.
– The seismic wavelet.
– Noise of various kinds and data defects.

• Seismic interpretation is the thoughtful procedure of separating

these effects.
Noise
• Noise is ever-present in seismic data. It may be
random noise, it may be multiple reflections, it may
be refracted energy, it may be other energy of
unknown source.

• The data may suffer defects because of:

– Irregular data acquisition showing as footprint.
– Obstacles to the data acquisition crew.
– Equipment difficulties in the field.
– Processing problems.
Noise
• The interpreter must know enough about the
acquisition and processing to recognize these
undesirable features, and thus to not confuse
them with the geology he/she seeks.
Seismic Interpretation
• Seismic energy is reflected from interfaces where the
acoustic properties of the rocks change.

• These interfaces follow sedimentary boundaries

created at the time of deposition of the sediments.

• Following the continuity of these reflections then

defines for us the structure imposed on these
boundaries by the tectonic forces of geologic history.
• Following this continuity and making structure
maps is thus the most basic, and most
traditional, activity of seismic interpretation.

• To aid in this endeavor the seismic interpreter

can manipulate the data and the display in
various ways.
Seismic Amplitude
• Once the structure has been established, the
interpreter turns his attention to stratigraphic
interpretation and the detection of
hydrocarbon fluids.

• Overwhelming important here is seismic

amplitude – and the amplitude may be
presented to the interpreter or extracted from
the data in various ways.
Geophysical Interpretation
• Tracing and mapping reflectors
• We have to appreciate
– the value of seismic amplitude
– the resolution of the data,
– how to recognize data defects,
– the precision of workstation auto-trackers,
– the complexities of seismic horizon identification
– and the mystifying plethora of seismic attributes
• Requires understanding of velocity, geometric and
processing pitfalls
Geologic Interpretation

• Identifying reflections
• Structural mapping
• Tying to surface outcrop or drilled subcrop
• “Pattern Recognition” – seismic facies and sequence strat
• Interpreting the entire stratigraphic section/data volume
• Inferring the geologic history
• Consider scale: regional vs prospect mapping.
• Requires knowledge of what is geologically possible and what is
geologically probable in a given area.
• Integration of entire geophysical/geological database
• Requires imagination
Exploration’s Task
Identify
Opportunities Capture
Prime Areas
Acquire
Seismic Data Drill
Process Wildcats
Seismic Data
Interpret
Seismic Data Failure Success
Assess Confirmation
Prospects Well

Uneconomic Success

To Development
Drop
Or Production
Prospect
Seismic Interpretation
Geologic Framework

 Structural Interpretation
• Faults & Folds
• Subsidence & Uplift
• Structural Trends
• Structural Features

 Stratigraphic Interpretation
• Unconformities
• Stratal Packages
• Environments / Facies / Lithologies
• Ages
What do you see?
Diapiric Movement
Salt Diapirs
ADDITIONAL READING
 

• Anstey, N.A (1982). Simple Seismics, lHRDC, Boston, MA.

• Bacon, M., Barclay, W., Sheriff, R.E. and McQuillin, R. (1985). An Introduction to
Seismic Interpretation. New Orleans : Gulf Professional Publishing.
• Bacon, M., Simm, R. and Redshaw, T. (2003). 3-D Seismic Interpretation. New York :
Cambridge University Press
• Brown, L.F., Jr. and W.L. Fisher (1980). Seismic Stratigraphic Interpretation and
Petroleum Exploration, AAPG, Tulsa, OK.
• Brown, A. (1999). Interpretation of Three-dimensional Seismic Data. Tulsa: Society of
Exploration Geophysicists.
• Fitch, A.A. (1976). Seismic Reflection Interpretation, Gebruder Borntraeger, Stuttgart.
• Hilterman, F. J. (2001). "Seismic Amplitude Interpretation." 2001 Distinguished
Instructor Short Course. Tulsa: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
• Kleyn, A.H. (1983). Seismic Reflection Interpretation, Applied Science Publishers,
London.
• McQuillin, R., Bacon, M. and w. Barclay (1979 ). An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation,
Graham and Trotman, London (and Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, TX).
• Nelson, H.R. Jr. (1983 ). New Technologies in Exploration Geophysics. Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston, TX.
• Payton, C.E., ed., (1977). Seismic Stratigraphy-Applications to Hydrocarbon Exploration, AAPG
Memoir 26, AAPG, Tulsa, OK.
• Sheriff, R.E.(1978 ). A First Course in Geophysical Exploration and Interpretation. IHRDC, Boston,
MA.
• Sheriff, R.E. (1980 ). Seismic Stratigraphy, IHRDC, Boston, MA.
• Tearpock, D. J. and Bischke, R. (1991). Applied Subsurface Geological Mapping. New York:
Prentice Hall.
• Tearpock, D. J. and Bischke, R. (2002). Applied Subsurface Geological Mapping with Structural
Methods. New York: Prentice Hall.
• Tucker, P. M. (1973). Pitfalls in Seismic Interpretation. Tulsa: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
• Weimer, P. and Davis, T. (1996). Application of 3-D Seismic Data to Exploration and Production.
Tulsa: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
ADDITIONAL READING
•  
• Bennett, K.C. and Rusk, D. (2002) "Regional 2D Seismic Interpretation and Exploration Potential of
Offshore Deepwater Sierra Leone and Liberia, West Africa." The Leading Edge, 21,11, 1118-1124. Tulsa :
Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
• Brown, A. R. (2001). "Calibrate Yourself to Your Data! A Vital First Step in Seismic Interpretation."
Geophysical Prospecting, 49, 729-733.Houten: European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers.
• Duin, E. (2001). "A Detailed 3-D Seismic Interpretation of a Salt Dome and its Caprock, a Case Study in the
Northeastern Netherlands .' Abstract 71 st Annual International Meeting, 670-673 . Tulsa: Society of
Exploration Geophysicists.
• Dorn, G. A. (1998). "Modern 3-D Seismic Interpretation." The Leading Edge, 17, 09, 1262-1272. Tulsa:
Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
• Fainstein, R., Coxon, M. L., Williams, P. A., Hermantoro, A. E. and Setiardja, B. (1996). "Prospect Mapping
of the Timor Sea, Indonesia." Abstract 66 th Annual International Meeting, 1271-1274 . Tulsa: Society of
Exploration Geophysicists.
• Frankovic, E. A. (1996). "Seismic Data Interpretation of the Northwest Flank of the Jacobobad Khairpur
High, Pakistan." Abstract 66 th Annual International Meeting, 1268-1270 . Tulsa: Society of Exploration
Geophysicists.
• Gutierrez, M.A. and Nur, A. (2001). "3-D Seismic Interpretation of Tectonic Wrenching and Faulting in La
Cira-Infantas." The Leading Edge, 20, 7, 752-760. Tulsa: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
• Hinson, C. A. (1996). "3-D Seismic Interpretation of Little Buffalo Basin Field, Wyoming, USA - A Secondary
Recovery Case History." Abstract 66 th Annual International Meeting, 1924-1925 . Tulsa: Society of
Exploration Geophysicists.
• Hidalgo, R., Haryono, S., Schneider, S. and Roden, R. (2001). "3-D Seismic Interpretation of Thin Gas
Sandstone Reservoirs Using Multiattribute Analysis on Poststack and AVO Data, Offshore SE Sumatra." The
Leading Edge, 20, 4, 364-370. Tulsa: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
• Hooyman, P. J. (1998). "An Introduction to this Special Section: 3-D Seismic Interpretation." The Leading
Edge, 17, 09, 1260. Tulsa: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
• Huxley, D. (1998). "Seismic Interpretation in 2025." The Leading Edge, 17, 06, 796. Tulsa: Society of
Exploration Geophysicists.
• Illing, L.V., and G.D. Hobson, eds., 1981, Petroleum Geology of the Continental Shelf of North-West Europe,
The Institute of Petroleum, London.
• Luo, Y., Higgs, W. G. and Kowalik, W. S. (1996). "Edge Detection and Stratigraphic Analysis Using 3-D Seismic
Data." Abstract 66 th Annual International Meeting, 324-327 . Tulsa: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
• Mitchum, R.M., Vail, P.R., and S. Thompson, 1977, Seismic Stratigraphy and Global Change of Sea Level, Part
2: The Depositional Sequence as a Basin Unit for Stratigraphic Analysis, in Seismic Stratigraphy ¾ Applications
to Hydrocarbon Exploration, Am. Assoc. of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 26, AAPG, Tulsa OK.
• Neff, D., Singleton, J., Grismore, J., Layton, J. and Keskula, E. (2000). "Seismic Interpretation Using True 3-D
Visualization." The Leading Edge, 19, 05, 523-525. Tulsa: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
ADDITIONAL READING
• Macurda, D. B. (1987). "Seismic Interpretation of Transgressive and Progradational Sequences."
The Leading Edge, 06, 04, 18-21. Tulsa: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
• Neidell, N. S. (1989). "Guest Editorial: The Ultimate Paper on Seismic Interpretation."
Geophysics, 54, 1370. Tulsa: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
• Pennington, W. D. and Lutch, T. E. (1997). "Finding Hydrocarbons in the Classroom Using 'Free'
Seismic Interpretation Software." The Leading Edge, 16, 07, 1051-1053. Tulsa: Society of
Exploration Geophysicists.
• Praka-Seismos Digest, 1978, Volume 1, Migration, Hannover, Germany.
• Riadhy, S., Ismi, C. and Iriani, S. (1997). "Seismic Expression of Lowstand Deposit: A Case Study
Using Sequence Stratigraphy - 2-D Seismic Facies Analysis, 3-D Seismic Time-horizon Slices and
2-D Seismic Inversion." Abstract 67 th Annual International Meeting, 579-582 . Tulsa: Society of
Exploration Geophysicists.
• Sheline, H. E. (1998). "Crosswell Seismic Interpretation and Reservoir Characterization: An
Offshore Case History." The Leading Edge, 17, 07, 935-939. Tulsa: Society of Exploration
Geophysicists.
• .
•  
• Sigismondi, M. and Soldo, J. C. (2003). "Curvature Attributes and Seismic Interpretation: Case
Studies from Argentina Basins" The Leading Edge, 22, 11, 1122-1126. Tulsa: Society of
Exploration Geophysicists.
• Sternbach, L. R. (2002). "Unsolved Mysteries of Seismic Interpretation: A Retrospective of 20
Years of TLE." The Leading Edge, 21, 10, 952-954. Tulsa: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
• Taylor, J.C.M., 1981, Late Permian-Zechstein, in Joint Association for Petroleum Exploration
courses (JAPEC) Course Notes No. 1, Introduction to the Petroleum Geology of the North Sea,
JAPEC, London.
• Thorseth, J., Riley, G., Atalik, E. and Us, E. (1997). "3-D Seismic Interpretation Using the
Coherency Cube: An Example from the South Embra Precaspian Basin, Kazakhstan." The
Leading Edge, 16, 06, 907-909. Tulsa: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
• Williams, M. and Jenner, E. (2002). "Interpreting Seismic Data in the Presence of Azimuthal
Anisotropy; or Azimuthal Anisotropy in the Presence of the Seismic Interpretation." The
Leading Edge, 21, 8, 771-774. Tulsa: Society of Exploration Geophysicists.
• Woodland, A., ed. (1975 ). Petroleum and the Continental Shelf of North West Europe, Vol. 1,
Geology, Applied Science Publishers, London
Steps In Depth Conversion
Steps in depth conversion of time data using time-
velocity cube
• Prepare stacking velocities

• Inspect the velocity data

• Grid stacking velocities into a velocity cube to

smooth out errors

• Displaying the velocity cube

• Use Check-shot wells to trim the velocity cube

through sophisticated updating techniques

• Use velocity cube for depth conversion of time

grids into depth grids
Depth Grid