FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Circuit Analysis I
EE-101

Name: _______________________________________________
Roll Number: _________________________________________

Complied and Tested By:

Dr. Syed Sheraz ul Hasan Mohani

Engr. Sajid Yasin

Engr. Ghalib Nadeem

Engr. Jamil Ahmed

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

List of Experiments
Lab No Topics Remarks Mapping

 To familiarize with Linear Circuit Analysis lab

1.
equipment, components and determine the
CLO1, PLO1
value of Resistance & capacitance by using
coding scheme.

 To study and analyze the equivalent CLO1, PLO1

2. resistance for complex resistive networks
(Series, parallel, and hybrid).

 To determine safe voltage and safe current of CLO1, PLO1

a resistor from its power rating & resistance
3. value and to investigate the behavior of
voltage sources when connected in series
aiding and series opposing format.

 To verify Ohm’s law and VI characteristics of CLO1, PLO1

4.
a linear component also plot the relation
between Resistance, Current and Voltage
parameters.

 To Study and verify Voltage divider rule in a CLO1, PLO1

5.
Series DC circuit and To study and verify
experimentally Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in
single and multiple loops DC circuit.

 To Study and verify Current divider rule in a CLO1, PLO1

6.
Parallel DC circuit and To study and verify
experimentally Kirchhoff’s Current Law in
single and multiple nodes DC circuit.

7.  Open Ended lab CLO1, PLO1

 To Study and verify complex DC network in CLO1, PLO1

8. to simple Series circuit with VTH, RTH, &
RL using Thevenien's Theorem

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 To study and analyze Superposition Theorem CLO1, PLO1

9. in DC Circuit with multiple independent
sources.

 To study The Maximum power transfer CLO1, PLO1

10.
theorem in a series DC circuit.

 To Study Mesh analysis in complex networks CLO1, PLO1

11.
with multiple voltage sources & loops.

 To study and analyze the conversion of star – CLO1, PLO1

12. delta & delta – star and to verify
experimentally that these network are
equivalent to each other.

 To study and analyze Transformers and its CLO1, PLO1

13. basic operation.

CLO1, PLO1
14.  Open Ended lab (Project)

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Course Name (Course Code) ________________________Semester______ Batch _______

Name of Student: __________________________ Roll No. __________________

LAB Description & Score

1. CLO1 ( )/10 Score( )/10

2. CLO1 ( )/10 Score( )/10

3. CLO1 ( )/10 Score( )/10

4. CLO1 ( )/10 Score( )/10

5. CLO1 ( )/10 Score( )/10

6. CLO1 ( )/10 Score( )/10

7. CLO1 ( )/10 Score( )/10

8. CLO1 ( )/10 Score( )/10

9. CLO1 ( )/10 Score( )/10

10. CLO1 ( )/10 Score( )/10

11. CLO1 ( )/10 Score( )/10

12. CLO1 ( )/10 Score( )/10

13. CLO1 ( )/10 Score( )/10

14. CLO1 ( )/10 Score( )/10

Obtained
Total Score
Total CLO1 ( )/140
= 140
Score( )/140

Overall Score: ___________ out of 10 Examined by: _________________

Overall Formula= (Obtained Score / Total Score) x 10 (Name and Signature of Instructor)

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Circuit Analysis I - LAB (0+1)

Instructor:

Prerequisites: None

Objectives:

The major objectives of this course are for students to learn the fundamental
principles of circuit theory to design electric circuits and to enhance problem
solving skills in the domain of engineering. The main objective of this course is
the analysis of physical circuits through the use of different laws and ideal circuit
element models. Strong emphasis is placed on the formulation of nodal equations
for linear resistive circuits as a foundation, but generalizations necessary for
handling nonlinear elements are also highlighted. This course introduces the
circuit laws to solve DC as well as steady-state AC circuits. This course serves as
a survey of classical circuit theory. The main goals of this course are:
1. To teach students the fundamental concepts of simple and complex power
circuits.
2. To teach students how to analyze and solve electrical circuits with the help
of circuit theorem and laws.
3. To prepare students in order to apply the knowledge of electrical circuits
in the problem based scenarios.
Activities such as electrical problem solving and circuit solving are important elements of this
course.

Contents:
Introduction to Electrical Engineering and Circuit Analysis
 Basic Components and Electric Circuits
 Voltage and Current Laws
 Nodal and Mesh Analysis
 Handy Circuit Analysis Techniques
 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
 AC Circuits Power Analysis

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Learning Outcomes:

Mapping of CLOs and PLOs

Program
Course Learning Outcomes Learning
Sr. No. Bloom’s Taxonomy
(CLOs) Outcomes
(PLOs)

Apply and Recognize standards

CLO_1
of fundamental concepts of solving PLO_1 P5 (Apply)
electrical circuit by different laws and
circuit theorems.

CLO Assessment Mechanism

Assessment tools CLO_1

Lab Manual 15%

Lab
10%
Assignment/Quiz

Lab/Course
10%
Project

Grading Policy

Lab Manual 10%

Lab Performance + Project 15%

Mid and Final Exam 75%

Recommended Book:

 William H. Hayt, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly, Steven M. Durbin, Engineering Circuit Analysis, 8th
Edition, McGraw-Hill 2015.
 Charles K. Alexander, Mathew N O Sadiku, Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, 5th Edition
McGraw-Hill 2013.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

General Laboratory Procedure

While there is no specific document to be submitted at the beginning of the Lab –unless your instructor
advises you otherwise-, you are expected to read the experiment fully before you come to the
laboratory? Interestingly, you can even try parts of the experiment at home. Here is a list of programs
that will equip you with a virtual lab at your home:
Troubleshooting
Things will not always go as expected; this is the nature of the learning process. While conducting the
Experiment think before you do anything. If you do so you will avoid wasting time going down dead-
end streets. Be logical and systematic. First, look for obvious errors that are easy to fix. Is your
measuring device correctly set and connected? Are you looking at the proper scale? Is the power supply
set for the correct voltage? Is the signal generator correctly set and connected? How are the variables
in the code set? Is there a syntax error? And so on. Next, check for obvious misconnections or broken
connections, at least in simple circuits.
As you work through your circuit, use your Lab Manual record tests and changes that you make as you
go along; don't rely on your memory for what you have tried. Identify some test points in the system at
which you know what the signal should be and work your way backwards from the output through the
test points until you find a good signal.
Neatness
When you have finished for the day, return all modules to their proper storage bins, return all test leads
and probes to their storage racks, return all equipment to its correct location, and clean up the lab station.
If appropriate switch off the unneeded equipment. Save your files in the Computer and on any USB
device for your records because you might not get the same PC System again for the next experiment.
Also email your file contents to your email address as a backup.
Laboratory Safety

Always pay attention to what you are doing and you’re surrounding during the experiments, notify the
Instructor for any unlikely event or mishap, and leave the Laboratory with the permission of Instructor
immediately.
All students must read and understand the information in this document with regard to laboratory safety
and emergency procedures prior to the first laboratory session.
Your personal laboratory safety depends mostly on YOU. Efforts have been made to address
situations that may pose a hazard in the lab but the information and instructions provided cannot be
considered all-inclusive.
Students must adhere to written and verbal safety instructions throughout the academic term. Since
additional instructions may be given at the beginning of laboratory sessions, it is important that all
students arrive at each session on time. With good judgment, the chance of an accident in this course
is very small. Nevertheless, research and teaching workplaces (labs, shops, etc.) are full of potential
hazards that can cause serious injury and or damage to the equipment. Working alone and unsupervised
in laboratories is forbidden if you are working with hazardous substances or equipment. With prior
approval, at least two people should be present so that one can shut down equipment and call for help
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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

in the event of an emergency. Safety training and/or information should be provided by a faculty
member, teaching assistant, lab safety contact, or staff member at the beginning of a new assignment or
when a new hazard is introduced into the workplace.
Emergency Response
1. It is your responsibility to read safety and fire alarm posters and follow the instructions during an
emergency
2. Know the location of the fire extinguisher, eye wash, and safety shower in your lab and know how
to use them.
3. Notify your instructor immediately after any injury, fire or explosion, or spill.
4. Know the building evacuation procedures.
Common Sense
Good common sense is needed for safety in a laboratory. It is expected that each student will work in a
responsible manner and exercise good judgment and common sense. If at any time you are not sure how
to handle a particular situation, ask your Teaching Assistant or Instructor for advice DO NOT TOUCH
ANYTHING WITH WHICH YOU ARE NOT COMPLETELY FAMILIAR!!! It is always better
to ask questions than to risk harm to yourself or damage to the equipment.
Personal and General laboratory safety
1. Never eat, drink, or smoke while working in the laboratory.
2. Read labels carefully.
3. Do not use any equipment unless you are trained and approved as a user by your supervisor.
4. Wear safety glasses or face shields when working with hazardous materials and/or equipment.
5. Wear gloves when using any hazardous or toxic agent.
6. Clothing: When handling dangerous substances, wear gloves, laboratory coats, and safety shield or
glasses. Shorts and sandals should not be worn in the lab at any time. Shoes are required when
working in the machine shops.
7. If you have long hair or loose clothes, make sure it is tied back or confined.
8. Keep the work area clear of all materials except those needed for your work. Coats should be hung
in the hall or placed in a locker. Extra books, purses, etc. should be kept away from equipment that
requires air flow or ventilation to prevent overheating.
9. Disposal - Students are responsible for the proper disposal of used material if any in appropriate
containers.
10. Equipment Failure - If a piece of equipment fails while being used, report it immediately to your lab
assistant or tutor. Never try to fix the problem yourself because you could harm yourself and others.
11. If leaving a lab unattended, turn off all ignition sources and lock the doors.
12. Never pipette anything by mouth.
13. Clean up your work area before leaving.
14. Wash hands before leaving the lab and before eating.
15. Unauthorized person(s) shall not be allowed in a laboratory for any reason
Electrical safety
1. Obtain permission before operating any high voltage equipment.
2. Maintain an unobstructed access to all electrical panels.
3. Wiring or other electrical modifications must be referred to the Electronics Shop or the Building
Coordinator.

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4. Avoid using extension cords whenever possible. If you must use one, obtain a heavy- duty one that
is electrically grounded, with its own fuse, and install it safely. Extension cords should not go under
doors, across aisles, be hung from the ceiling, or plugged into other extension cords.
5. Never, ever modify, attach or otherwise change any high voltage equipment.
6. Always make sure all capacitors are discharged (using a grounded cable with an insulating handle)
before touching high voltage leads or the "inside" of any equipment even after it has been turned off.
Capacitors can hold charge for many hours after the equipment has been turned off.
7. When you are adjusting any high voltage equipment or a laser which is powered with a high voltage
supply, USE ONLY ONE HAND. Your other hand is best placed in a pocket or behind your back.
This procedure eliminates the possibility of an accident where high voltage current flows up one
arm, through your chest, and down the other arm.
8. Discard damaged cords, cords that become hot, or cords with exposed wiring.
9. Before equipment is energized ensure, (1) circuit connections and layout have been checked by a
Teaching Assistant (TA) and (2) all colleagues in your group give their assent.
10. Know the correct handling, storage and disposal procedures for batteries, cells, capacitors, inductors
and other high energy-storage devices.
11. Experiments left unattended should be isolated from the power supplies. If for a special reason, it
must be left on, a barrier and a warning notice are required.
12. Equipment found to be faulty in any way should be reported to the Lab Engineer immediately and
taken out of service until inspected and declared safe.
13. Voltages above 50 V rms AC and 120 V DC are always dangerous. Extra precautions should be
considered as voltage levels are increased.
14. Never make any changes to circuits or mechanical layout without first isolating the circuit by
switching off and removing connections to power supplies.
15. Know what you must do in an emergency.
16. Emergency Power Off: Every lab is equipped with and Emergency Power Off System.
17. Only authorized personnel are permitted to reset power once the Emergency Power Off system has
been engaged.
Electrical Emergency Response
The following instructions provide guidelines for handling two types of electrical emergencies:
1. When someone suffers serious electrical shock, he or she may be knocked unconscious. If the victim
is still in contact with the electrical current, immediately turn off the electrical power source. If you
cannot disconnect the power source, depress the Emergency Power Off switch.
2. Do not touch a victim that is still in contact with a live power source; you could be electrocuted.
3. Have someone call for emergency medical assistance immediately. Administer first-aid, as
appropriate.
4. If an electrical fire occurs, try to disconnect the electrical power source, if possible. If the fire is
small and you are not in immediate danger; and you have been properly trained in fighting fires, use
the correct type of fire extinguisher to extinguish the fire. When in doubt, push in the Emergency
Power Off button.
5. NEVER use water to extinguish an electrical fire.

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Mechanical safety
1. When using compressed air, use only approved nozzles and never direct the air towards any person.
2. Guards on machinery must be in place during operation.
3. Exercise care when working with or near hydraulically- or pneumatically-driven equipment. Sudden
or unexpected motion can inflict serious injury.
Additional Safety Guidelines
1. Never do unauthorized experiments.
2. Never work alone in laboratory.
3. Keep your lab space clean and organized.
4. Do not leave an on-going experiment unattended.
5. Always inform your instructor if you break a thermometer. Do not clean mercury yourself!!
6. Never taste anything. Never pipette by mouth; use a bulb.
7. Never use open flames in laboratory unless instructed by TA.
8. Check your glassware for cracks and chips each time you use it. Cracks could cause the glassware
to fail during use and cause serious injury to you or lab mates.
9. Maintain unobstructed access to all exits, fire extinguishers, electrical panels, emergency showers,
and eye washes.
10. Do not use corridors for storage or work areas.
11. Do not store heavy items above table height. Any overhead storage of supplies on top of cabinets
should be limited to lightweight items only. Also, remember that a 36" diameter area around all fire
sprinkler heads must be kept clear at all times.
12. Areas containing lasers, biohazards, radioisotopes, and carcinogens should be posted accordingly.
However, do not post areas unnecessarily and be sure that the labels are removed when the hazards
are no longer present.
13. Be careful when lifting heavy objects. Only shop staff may operate forklifts or cranes.
14. Clean your lab bench and equipment, and lock the door before you leave the laboratory.
Clothing
1. Dress properly during a laboratory activity.
2. Long hair, dangling jewelry, and loose or baggy clothing are a hazard in the laboratory.
3. Long hair must be tied back, and dangling jewelry and baggy clothing must be secured.
4. Shoes must completely cover the foot.
5. No sandals allowed on lab days.
6. A lab coat or smock should be worn during laboratory experiments.
Accidents and Injuries
1. Do not panic.
2. Report any accident (spill, breakage, etc.) or injury (cut, burn, etc.) to the
teacher immediately, no matter how trivial it seems.
3. If you or your lab partner is hurt, immediately (and loudly) yell out the
teacher's name to get the teacher's attention.

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

General Warning Signs

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Lab # 1
Objective: To familiarize with Linear Circuit Analysis lab equipment, components and
determine the value of Resistance & capacitance by using coding scheme.
a) To determine the value of Resistance and capacitance by using coding scheme and
DMM values.

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS

Components Equipments
Resistor UNI-T Digital Multi-meter (UT 55)

Capacitor K & H MFG Power Project Board (PP

272)

BASIC DESCRIPTION

The purpose of this experiment is to acquaint you with the essential electronic laboratory
equipment. Learn how to handle the instruments safely and how to read different scales shown
on the instruments’ display for accurate recording of scale readings. You are advised to make
yourself comfortable with the proper handling of the instruments if you really want to perform
your future job as an engineer in a professional manner.

Resistor
Resistor is a simplest circuit element almost found in all electronic systems. It is used to
resist or limit electrical current in a circuit. The value of resistance is measured in ohms.
The higher the value of the resistor the lower the value of current it will allow to pass
through it.

Figure A

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Capacitor

There are two types of capacitors, i.e. electrolyte and non – electrolyte capacitors. The non-
electrolytic capacitors use Paper, Mica, Ceramic, Mylar, Glass, Porcelain, Polycarbonate,
and Wax as Insulator. Figure 2 shows symbols of the two types of the capacitor. The
difference in the use of the two types of capacitors is that non-electrolytic capacitors can
be charged in any direction, where as the Electrolytic ones can only be charged in one
direction. Electrolytic Capacitors are Polar; i.e., one of its two plates is Positive and other
is Negative, whereas in non-electrolytic capacitors, both the plates are same, having no
polarity.

Figure B

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PROCEDURE (1-a): To familiarize with Linear Circuit Analysis lab equipment

and components including Basic Circuit Components & its Symbols, Power
Supply, Bread Board and Digital Multi meter.

Power Supply

The Electrical quantities are either varying or non-varying; i.e. AC or DC. AC stands
for Alternating Current, whereas DC stands for Direct Current. Alternating currents are
those; with vary in some periodic fashion. The voltage, which causes Alternating
Current, is called AC voltage, and the one, which causes Direct Current, is called DC
voltage. For example, figure 1.1a shows waveforms of alternating currents.

AC Current Wave DC Current Wave

Forms Figure 1.1a Forms

Sinusoidal waveform is the most popular among all. The mains supply in our houses is
an example of ac voltage source, which provides a 220 volts ac with sinusoidal
waveform. The mains supply voltage has a frequency of 60 Hz, i.e. a time period of
16.667 ms

Figure 1.1a shows response of an Ideal DC Power Supply, which provides either Constant
Current or Constant Voltage irrespective of the load resistance. But the real power supplies
arc not as accurate as ideal ones. A real power source has a finite internal- resistance, which
consumes part of the power from the source. Figure 1.1b shows the symbols of Constant
Current and Constant Voltage Sources.
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A A

DC Current Symbol AC Current

Source Source
Current
Source

+
V V
_

DC Voltage Symbol AC Voltage

Source Source
Voltage
Source

Figure 1.1b

The measuring instruments used to measure Potential Difference are called Voltmeter, The
ones Used to measure Current are called Ampere Meter (in short, Ammeter), and the ones
used to measure Resistance are called the Ohmmeter. The current measurements in the
electronic circuits are usually in the range of milli-amperes. Hence in electronics lab,
mostly ammeters with the range of milli-amperes are used, which are called M1II-
Ammeter. Then, there are instruments called Multi-meter, which can measure Current,
Voltage, and Resistance and some other electrical characteristics. These are sometimes
called {Ampere-Volt-Ohm) AVO meters. The measuring instruments are generally
classified as analog or Digital.

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The analog meters have a deflection pointer with a scaled dial, which needs to be calibrated;
The Calibration is the process of correcting any error in the reading of a measuring
instrument. These meters have a calibration screw associated with their deflection system,
which is to be set before use to make the deflection pointer show "ZERO". In contrast to
this, the digital meters have an LCD display like the one in a calculator, and do not need
Calibration, Clear advantage of the digital meter is that it shows the exact reading on the
display, and one does not need to read the scale, which sometimes is nonlinear and very
difficult to read. The analog meters with multiple ranges usually have two scales. One must
take care to read the right scale for the selected range. The analog multi-meter has a separate
scale for each quantity to be measured. Hence, its scales are very confusing and difficult to
read.

 PROCEDURE

1) Look for any kind of Power Supply 'Unit in the Workshop, like AC Voltage Source, AC
Current Source, DC 'Voltage Source, DC Current. Source, and list them all in Table 1-1
Note down their Type, Model, and the Range. Some of them have Display; some of them
might have scale with a pointing needle.

2) Look for various kinds Of Measuring Instruments e.g. Voltmeter, Ammeter, Ohmmeter,
etc available in the Workshop.

3) Take any voltage source and connect a Voltmeter to its output terminals and turn it ON.
Select any voltage from the voltage source; note down the selected value from its scale or
display, against the value shown by the voltmeter connected by you, in Table 1-2. Is the
value exactly same as required? Repeat the same by selecting another magnitude of voltage.

4) Finally, try measuring the mains supply ac voltage. Take a Digital Multi-meter. (DMM),
and set it to measure ac voltage. Select the measurement range higher than 220 Volts, and
insert the DMM probes in any one of the HALF POINTS in the Workshop.

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 OBSERVATION

Model AC DC Voltage Current Range

Bread Board

A breadboard is used to make up temporary circuits for testing or to try out an idea. No
soldering is required so it is easy to change connections and replace components. Parts will
not be damaged so they will be available to re-use afterwards.

Almost all the Electronics Club projects started life on a breadboard to check that the circuit
worked as intended.

Figure 1.1c

The bread board has many strips of metal (copper usually) which run underneath the board.
The metal strips are laid out as shown below.

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Figure 1.1d

These strips connect the holes on the top of the hoard. This makes it easy to connect
components together to build circuits. To use the bread board, the legs of components are
placed in the holes (the sockets). The holes arc made so that they will hold the component
in place. Each hole is connected to one of the metal strips running underneath the board.

Each wire forms a node. A node is a point in a circuit where two components are connected.
Connections between different components are formed by putting their legs in a common
node. On the bread board, a node is the row of that is connected by the strip of metal
underneath.

The long top and bottom row of holes are usually used for power supply connections.

The rest of the Circuit is built by placing components and connecting them together with
jumper wires. Then when a path is formed by wires and components from the positive
supply node to the negative supply node, we can turn on the power and current flows
through the path and the circuit comes alive.

For chips with many legs (ICs), place them in the middle of the board so that half of the
legs arc on one side of die middle line and half are on the other side.

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Digital Multimeters
All digital meters contain a battery to power the display so they use virtually no power from
the circuit under test. This means that on their DC voltage ranges they have a very high
resistance (usually called input impedance) of 1M or more, usually 10M , and they are
very unlikely to affect the circuit under test.

Typical ranges for digital multimeters like the one illustrated:

(the values given are the maximum reading on each range)

Features

 Transistor
 Diode
 Continuity Buzzer
 Sleep Mode
 Low Battery Display
 Input Impedance for DC Voltage
Measurement 10MW
 Max. Display 1999

Specification

 DC Voltage
200mV/2V/20V/200V/1000V (0.5%+1)
 AC Voltage 2V/20V/200V/750V
(0.8%+3)
 DC Current 2mA/20mA/200mA/20A
(0.8%+1)
 AC Current 20mA/200mA/20A (1%+3)
 Capacitance 2nF/20nF/200nF/2mF/20mF
(4%+3)
 Frequency 20kHz (1.5%+5)
 Temperature (C) -20oC~1000oC
(1%+3)
 Resistance
200W/2kW/20kW/200kW/2MW/20MW/
200MW (0.8%+1)

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PROCEDURE (1-b)
To determine the value of Resistance and capacitance by using coding
scheme.

Resistance Measurement using DMM

1) Resistance is never measured by an ohm-meter in a live network, due to the possibility of

damaging the meter with excessively high currents and obtaining readings that have no
meaning.

2) Always start with the highest range of the instrument and switch down to the proper range
successively.

3) Use the range in which the deflection falls in the upper half of the meter scale.

4) Try to ascertain the polarity of dc voltages before making the measurement.

5) Whenever measuring the resistance of a resistor in a circuit, note whether there are any
other resistive elements that could cause an error in the reading. It may be necessary to
disconnect one side of the resistor before measuring.

6) Check the zero and ohms adjustments each time the range is changed.

7) When making measurements, grip the test prods by the handles as close to the lead end as
possible. Do not allow the fingers to touch the prod tips while measuring.

8) Keep the instruments away from the edge of the workbench, and away from heat and
dangerous fumes.

9) There is no zero adjustment on a DMM, but make sure that R=0 ohm when the leads are
touching or an adjustment internal to the meter may have to be made. Any resistance above
the maximum for a chosen scale will result in an O. 1 indication.

10) The ranges are usually marked as multiples of R. For example, R x 1Ω, R x 10Ω, R x
100Ω, R x 1 KΩ The value of the resistor can be found by multiplying the reading by the
range setting. For example, a reading of 11 on the R x 1 KΩ range is 11 x 1 KΩ = 11
KΩ or 11,000 Ω.
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XMM2 1

Figure 1.1f

Resistance Measurement using Color-Code

11) The resistance of many resistors can be determined by reading a series of colored bands
imprinted on the resistor body. In this scheme called “Resistor Color-Code” each color
represents a different decimal digit, as shown below.

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12) The first three bands of the color code are used to specify nominal value of the resistance,
and the fourth, or tolerance band, gives the percent deviation from the nominal value that
the actual resistor may have.

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 OBSERVATION

Nomin Maxim Minim

Resis al um um
tors Color Bands Color Resista
Resista Resista
Bands nce
nce nce

Samp 2 2 0
R, R, B, G 22Ω 23.1Ω 20.9Ω
le 5%

 FORMULAS

Absolute Error Ea = Actual Value – Observed Value

% E =(Actual Value – Observed Value) * 100

Percentage Error
Actual Value

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 CALCULATIONS

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Capacitance Measurement using Numerical Codes

1) NUMERICAL CODES are used with non - electrolytic capacitors to specify their capacitance.
Usually, these codes are 3 digit long, specifying the capacitance in Pico Farads; the first two
digits are Tens and Units, where as the third digit is power of 10. For example, a code 102
means:

 For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF)

472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance)

333K means 33000pF = 33nF (K means 10% tolerance)

Power of
Tens Units Capacitance
10

1 0 2 10 x 10² pF = 1000 pF = 1nF

4 7 2 47x10 ² pF=4.7nF±5%

3 3 3 33x10pF=33nF±10%

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Capacitance Measurement using Color Codes

2) A color code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is now obsolete, but of
course there are many still around. The colors should be read like the resistor code, the top
three color bands giving the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band
(voltage rating).

 For example: Brown, Black, Orange means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01μF.

Note that there are no gaps between the colors bands, so 2 identical bands actually appear
as a wide band. For example: wide red, yellow means 220nF = 0.22μF.

 OBSERVATION

Capacitor Nominal
Capacitor Number Number
Type Resistance
Bands Bands

1 0 00
Sample Non Polar 1, 0, 2, K 1000pF
+10%

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

10

 CALCULATIONS

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

SIMULATION (1-d)
Use your circuit simulator to verify the theoretical & Practical results you
have obtained.

Conclusions (1-e)
Write the conclusions of this lab.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Lab # 2
a) To study and analyze the equivalent resistance for complex resistive networks
(Series, parallel, and hybrid).

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS

Components Equipments
Resistor UNI-T Digital Multi-meter (UT 55)

Connecting wires K & H MFG Power Project Board (PP 272)

Basic Description

In a series circuit as shown in figure below, the current is the constant through all of the
circuit elements where as voltage varies.

The total Resistance of a series circuit can be given as RT =R1 + R2 + R3.

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

In a Parallel circuit as shown in figure below, the voltage across parallel elements is the
same where as current varies

The total Resistance of a Parallel circuit can be given as 1/RT =1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3.

The combinational circuit is given as,

R1 20 R3

1 2

Vs R2 RL

21

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

PROCEDURE (2-a)
To study and analyze the equivalent resistance for complex resistive
networks. (Series, Parallel, and Hybrid).

1. Construct the Series, Parallel and Hybrid circuits.

2. Set the Dc supply to 15V by using DMM. Pick the resistances R1, R2, & R3 and verify
their resistance by using DMM and Color Coding method. Record it in the Table 2.1a.

3. Measure voltage across each resistor with DMM and record it in the Table 2.1b.

4. Measure Current “I” delivered by source and record it in Table 2.1c.

5. Shut down and disconnect the power supply. Then measure input resistance RT using
DMM and record the value in Table 2.1a. .

6. Now calculate, respective parameters (using Ohms Law).

Note: Use measured value of resistance for all calculations.

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

 OBSERVATION

RESISTANCE (Table 2.1a)

Measured
S.No. Coded Values
Resistance

RX Ω

1 R1 =

2 R2 =

3 R3 =

4 RT =

For Combinational Circuit (Table 2.1b)

Measured
Measured Calculated
Total
Resistance Voltage Voltage (VDR)
S.No. Voltage
EX Volts EX Volts
ET Volts

1 R1 = E1 =

2 R2 = E2 =

3 R3 = E3 =

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

For Parallel Circuit (Table 2.1c)

Measured Calculated
Measured
Total Current (Ohm’s
Resistance Current
S.No. Current Law)
IX Amp
IT Amp IX Amp

1 R1 = I1 =

2 R2 = I2 =

3 R3 = I3 =

For Combinational Circuit (Table 2.1d)

Calculated
Measured Measured
Parameters by
Resistance Voltage Current
S.No. (Ohm’s Law)
Vx volts IX Amp
IX Amp & Vx volts

1 R1 =

2 R2 =

3 R3 =

4 𝐑𝟒 =

𝑹𝑻 = 𝑽𝑻 = 𝑰𝑻 =

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

 FORMULAS

Resistance R = V/I

Total Resistance RT =R1 + R2 + R3

Absolute Error Ea = Actual Value – Observed Value

% E =(Actual Value – Observed Value) * 100

Percentage Error
Actual Value

 CALCULATION

Conclusion
Write the conclusions of this lab.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Lab # 3

OBJECTIVE

a) To determine safe voltage and safe current of a resistor from its power rating and its
resistance value.
b) To investigate the behavior of voltage sources when connected in series aiding and
series opposing format.
COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS

Components Equipments
Fixed Resistor UNI-T Digital Multi-meter (UT 55)

Variable Resistor K & H MFG. Power Project Board

(PP 272)

BASIC DESCRIPTION

Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flows through a resistor. Usually the
effect is negligible, but if the resistance is low (or the voltage across the resistor high) a
large current may pass making the resistor become noticeably warm. The resistor must be
able to withstand the heating effect and resistors have power ratings to show this.

Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts lists because for most circuits the
standard power ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable. For the rare cases where a higher
power is required it should be clearly specified in the parts list, these will be circuits using
low value resistors (less than about 300 ) or high voltages (more than 15V).

The power, P, developed in a resistor is given by:

P = I² × R or P = V² / R

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P = power developed in the resistor in watts (W)

I = current through the resistor in amps (A)
R = resistance of the resistor in ohms ( )
V = voltage across the resistor in volts (V)

For example, a 470 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V²/R = 10²/470
= 0.21W. In this case a standard 0.25W resistor would be suitable.

PROCEDURE 3 (a)
To determine safe voltage and safe current of a resistor from its power
rating and its resistance value.

1) Select a resistor of any low value and power (e.g. example 82 Ω / 0.25W)

2) Calculate its safe current and safe voltage from the given power ratings.

3) Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2.1. Two DMM are used here, one is used for voltage
measurement while the other is used for current measurement.

8 2
A

Vs V R
1

Vs = __________V R = __________Ω
Figure 2.1

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

4) Gradually increase the applied voltage and observe the temperature of the resistor. The
resistor should not begin to get warmth significantly and work efficiently if operated within
the safe voltage.

5) Continue increasing the applied voltage until it exceeds the safe level and observe that when
applied voltage exceeds the safe level, resistor begins to hot (care should be taken while
observing) and if you increase it further, you would see that the resistor begins to get burnt
with smokes.

 OBSERVATION

Resistance Value (as observed by the ohm meter) = __________

Power Rating =_____________

Safe Voltage = _____________

Safe Current = _____________

 FORMULAS

Voltage V = √𝑃 ∗ 𝑅

𝑃
Current 𝐼=√
𝑅

 CALCULATION

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

PROCEDURE (3-b)
To investigate the behavior of voltage sources when connected in series
aiding and series opposing format.

1) Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2.3 and 2.4, such that the two batteries are connected
in series aiding. That is, connect the negative terminal of one battery to the positive terminal
of the other. If connected properly, two terminals, one positive and one negative, will
remain. Record the values in the Table 2.3.

V1 V2 V3 V4
3 1 2 6 4 5

V1 = _____V V2 = V3 = _____V V4 =
_____V` _____V`

Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4

2) Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2.5 and 2.6, such that the two batteries are connected
in series opposing. That is, connect the negative terminal of one battery to the negative
terminal of the other. If connected properly, two terminals, either either positive or both
negative, will remain. Record the values in the Table 2.3.

V1 V2 V3 V4
2 1 3 5 4 6

V1 = _____V V2 = V3 = _____V V4 =
_____V` _____V`

Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6

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 OBSERVATION

Table 2.3

S.No. Voltage V1 Voltage V2 Voltage VT

Figure
2.3

Figure
2.4

Figure
2.5

Figure
2.6

 CALCULATION

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

SIMULATION
Use your circuit simulator to verify the theoretical & Practical results you
have obtained.

CONCLUSION
Write the conclusions of this lab.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Lab # 4

OBJECTIVE

c) To verify Ohm’s law and VI characteristics of a linear component.

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS

Components Equipments
Fixed Resistor UNI-T Digital Multi-meter (UT 55)

Variable Resistor K & H MFG. Power Project Board

(PP 272)

BASIC DESCRIPTION

Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flows through a resistor. Usually the
effect is negligible, but if the resistance is low (or the voltage across the resistor high) a
large current may pass making the resistor become noticeably warm. The resistor must be
able to withstand the heating effect and resistors have power ratings to show this.

OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law mathematically describes how voltage ‘V’, current ’I’, and resistance ‘R’ in a
circuit are related. According to this law “The current in a circuit is directly proportional
to the applied voltage and inversely proportional to the circuit resistance”.

VαI
i.e. V = IR

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Ohm's Law makes intuitive sense if we apply it to the water-and-pipe analogy. If we have
a water pump that exerts pressure (voltage) to push water around a "circuit" (current)
through a restriction (resistance), we can model how the three variables interrelate. If the
resistance to water flow stays the same and the pump pressure increases, the flow rate must
also increase. If the pressure stays the same and the resistance increases (making it more
difficult for the water to flow), then the flow rate must decrease. If the flow rate were to
stay the same while the resistance to flow decreased, the required pressure from the pump
would necessarily decrease.

PROCEDURE (2-a)
To verify Ohm’s law and VI characteristics of a linear component.

1) Construct the circuit as shown in the Figure 2.2.

R1 1 3
A
2
0%
Vs V

4
R
2

Figure 2.2

Vs = __________V R1 = __________Ω R2 = __________

Ω

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

When Resistance is Kept Constant & Voltage is Varied

2) Do not switch on the power supply. Disconnect the variable resistor R from the circuit and
set it to 2KΩ by using ohmmeter. Now reconnect it.

3) Turn on the power supply and adjust it to 5V. Measure the current I in amperes and record
it in the Table 2.1.

4) Measure and record in turn, the current I (in amperes) at each of the voltage settings shown
in the Table 2.1, for R = 2KΩ.

5) Calculate the value of current I by using I=V/RT. Use measured value of resistance.

6) Plot a graph of I versus V. (use measured values).

 OBSERVATION
Table 2.1

Voltage Measured Calculated

Resistance
S.No. Current I
(V) (KΩ) Current I (amp)
(amp)

1 2

2 4

3 6

4 8

5 10

6 12

7 15

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

 FORMULAS

Resistance R = V/I

Voltage V = RI

Current I =V/R

 CALCULATION

 Plot a graph of I versus V

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

When Voltage is kept Constant & Resistance is varied

7) Do not switch on the power supply. Disconnect the variable resistor R from the circuit and

set it to 2kΩ by using ohmmeter. Now reconnect it.

8) Turn on the power supply and adjust it to 15V. Measure the current I in amperes and record

it in the Table 2.2.

9) Measure and record in turn, the current I (in amperes) at each of the resistance settings

shown in the Table 2.2, for V=15V.Be sure to set the resistor values in the same way as

described above.

10) Calculate the value of resistance RT by using R=V/I. Use measured value of Voltage and

current.

11) Plot a graph of I versus R. (use measured values).

Table 2.2

Voltage Measured Calculated

Resistance
S.No. Current I
(KΩ)
(V) (amp) Current I (amp)

1 15 1

2 15 2

3 15 3

4 15 4

5 15 5

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

 FORMULAS

Resistance R = V/I

Voltage V = RI

Current I =V/R

 CALCULATION

 Plot a graph of I versus R

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

SIMULATION (2-d)
Use your circuit simulator to verify the theoretical & Practical results you
have obtained.

CONCLUSION (2-e)
Write the conclusions of this lab.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Lab # 5

OBJECTIVE

a) To study and verify Voltage divider rule in a Series DC circuit.

b) To study and verify experimentally Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in single and multiple
loops DC circuit.

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS

Components Equipments
Fixed Resistors UNI-T Digital Multi-meter (UT 55)

K & H MFG. Power Project Board (PP 272)

BASIC DESCRIPTION

In a series circuit as shown in figure below, the current is the constant through all of the
circuit elements where as voltage varies.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

The total Resistance of a series circuit can be given as RT =R1 + R2 + R3. According to
Ohm’s Law, “The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage
and inversely proportional to the circuit resistance”.

I = E / RT

Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law around closed loop of Figure, we find.

ET =V1 + V2 + V3

Where, V1= I R1, V2= I R2, V3=I R3

Note: In Figure, that I is the same throughout the Circuit.

 Voltage Divider Rule: The voltage divider rule states that the voltage across an
element or across a series combination of elements in a series circuit is equal to the
resistance of the element divided by total resistance of the series circuit and multiplied
by the total impressed voltage. VDR can he stated as:

VX = RX*VS

RT

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: Consider the simple series circuit as shown in figure below.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Here we have numbered the points in the circuit for voltage reference. As we are dealing
with dc circuits, therefore we should carefully connect the voltmeter while measuring
voltage across supply or any of the resistances as shown in figure, keeping in mind the
similarity of polarities of voltage across the element and that of the connected probes of
meter. In such case, we will observe that,

This principle is known as Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, and it can be stated as such:

"The algebraic sum of all voltages in a loop must equal zero"

PROCEDURE (5-a)
To study and verify Voltage divider rule in a series DC circuit.

1) Construct the circuit shown in Figure 5.1.

3 R1
A
6 2

Vs R2 V

1
4
R3
Vs = ________V, R1 = ________Ω, R2 = ________ Ω, R3
= __________ Ω

Figure 5.1

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2) Set the Dc supply to 15V by using DMM. Pick the resistances R1, R2, & R3 and verify
their resistance by using DMM and Color Coding method. Record it in the Table 5.1a.

3) Measure voltage across each resistor with DMM and record it in the Table 5.1b.

4) Measure Current I delivered by source and record it in Table 5.1c.

5) Shut down and disconnect the power supply. Then measure input resistance RT using DMM
and record the value in Table 5.1a. .

6) Now calculate, respective currents (using Ohms Law).

7) Calculate E1, E2 & E3 using voltage divider rule and measured resistance value.

Note: Use measured value of resistance for all calculations.

 OBSERVATION

RESISTANCE (Table 5.1a)

S.No. Coded Values Measured

Resistance RX Ω

1 R1 =

2 R2 =

3 R3 =

4 RT =

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VOLTAGE (Table 5.1b)

Measured
Measured Calculated
Total
Resistance Voltage Voltage (VDR)
S.No. Voltage
EX Volts EX Volts
ET Volts

1 R1 = E1 =

2 R2 = E2 =

3 R3 = E3 =

CURRENT (Table 5.1c)

Measured Calculated
Measured
Total Current (Ohm’s
Resistance Current
S.No. Current Law)
IX Amp
IT Amp IX Amp

1 R1 = I1 =

2 R2 = I2 =

3 R3 = I3 =

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

 FORMULAS

Resistance R = V/I

Total Resistance RT =R1 + R2 + R3

Absolute Error Ea = Actual Value – Observed Value

% E =(Actual Value – Observed Value)

Percentage Error * 100

Actual Value

 CALCULATION

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

PROCEDURE (5-b)
To study and verify experimentally Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in single and
multiple loops DC circuit.

Construct the circuit shown in Figure.

1) Construct the circuit shown in Figure 5.2.

3 R1
A
6 2

Vs R2 V

1
4 5
R4 R3
Vs = ______V, R1 = ______Ω, R2 = ______ Ω, R3 = ______ Ω, R4 =_______
Ω

Figure 5.2

2) Set the Dc supply to 15V by using DMM. Pick the resistances R1, R2, R3 & R4 and verify
their resistance by using DMM and Color Coding method. Record it in the Table 5.2a.

3) Measure voltage across each resistor with DMM and record it in the Table 5.2b.

4) Verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law experimentally.

5) Measure Current I delivered by source and record it in Table 5.2c.

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6) Shut down and disconnect the power supply. Then measure input resistance RT using DMM
and record the value in Table 5.2a.

7) Now calculate, respective currents (using Ohms Law).

8) Calculate E1, E2, E3 & E4 using voltage divider rule and measured resistance value.

9) Verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law theoretically.

Note: Use measured value of resistance for all calculations.

 OBSERVATION

RESISTANCE (Table 5.2a)

Measured

S.No. Coded Values Resistance

RX Ω

1 R1 =

2 R2 =

3 R3 =

4 RT =

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VOLTAGE (Table 5.2b)

Measured
Measured Calculated
Total
Resistance Voltage Voltage (VDR)
S.No. Voltage
EX Volts EX Volts
ET Volts

1 R1 = E1 =

2 R2 = E2 =

3 R3 = E3 =

4 R4 = E4 =

CURRENT (Table 5.2c)

Measured Calculated
Measured
Total Current (Ohm’s
Resistance Current
S.No. Current Law)
IX Amp
IT Amp IX Amp

1 R1 = I1 =

2 R2 = I2 =

3 R3 = I3 =

4 R4 = I4 =

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 FORMULAS

Resistance R = V/I

Total Resistance RT =R1 + R2 + R3

Absolute Error Ea = Actual Value – Observed Value

% E=(Actual Value – Observed

Percentage Error Value)*100

Actual Value

VX = RX*VS
Voltage Divider Rule
RT

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law ET= E1+ E2+----+ EN

 CALCULATION

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

SIMULATION
Use your circuit simulator to verify the theoretical & Practical results you
have obtained. Also give comments, what you analyze from it.

CONCLUSION
Write the conclusions of this lab.

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Lab # 6

OBJECTIVE

a) To study and verify Current divider rule in a Parallel DC circuit.

b) To study and verify experimentally Kirchhoff’s Current Law in single and multiple
nodes DC circuit.

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS

Components Equipments
Fixed Resistors UNI-T Digital Multi-meter (UT 55)

K & H MFG. Power Project Board (PP 272)

BASIC DESCRIPTION

In a Parallel circuit as shown in figure below, the voltage across parallel elements is the
same where as current varies

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The total Resistance of a series circuit can be given as 1/RT =1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3. In any
case, the total resistance will always be less than the resistance of the smallest resistor of
the parallel network. According to Ohm’s Law, “The current in a circuit is directly
proportional to the applied voltage and inversely proportional to the circuit resistance”.

E = I * RT

Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law around closed loop of Figure, we find.

IT =I1 + I2 + I3

Where, V R1= I1, V R2= I2, VR3=I3

Note: In Figure, that V is the same throughout the Circuit.

 Current Divider Rule: The current divider rule states that the current through an
element or through a parallel combination of elements in a parallel circuit is equal to
the total resistance of the parallel circuit divided by resistance of the element and
multiplied by the total impressed current. CDR can he stated as:

IX = RT*IS

RX

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: Kirchhoff’s Current Law States that:

"The algebraic sum of all currents entering and exiting a node must equal
zero"

Mathematically, we can express this general relationship as such:

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That is, if we assign a mathematical sign (polarity) to each current, denoting whether
they enter (+) or exit (-) a node, we can add them together to arrive at a total of zero,
guaranteed.

Note: Whether negative or positive denotes current entering or exiting is entirely

arbitrary, so long as they are opposite signs for opposite directions and we stay
consistent in our notation, KCL will work

PROCEDURE (6-a)
To study and verify Current divider rule in a Parallel DC circuit.

1) Construct the circuit shown in Figure 4.1.

V
R1

R2 13

R3
A
Vs
6 3

Vs = ________V, R1 = ________Ω, R2 = ________ Ω, R3 = __________ Ω

Figure 6.1

2) Set the Dc supply to 15V by using DMM. Pick the resistances having valuesR1, R2, & R3
and verify their resistance by using DMM and Color Coding method. Record it in the Table
6.1a.

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3) Measure Current through each resistor with DMM and record it in the Table 6.1b.

4) Measure Voltage E delivered by source and record it in Table 6.1c.

5) Shut down and disconnect the power supply. Then measure input resistance RT across
points using DMM and record the value in Table 6.1a.

6) Now calculate, respective voltages (using Ohms Law).

7) Calculate I1, I2 & I3 using Current divider rule and measured resistance value.

Note: Use measured value of resistance for all calculations.

 OBSERVATION

RESISTANCE (Table 6.1a)

Measured

S.No. Coded Values Resistance

RX Ω

1 R1 =

2 R2 =

3 R3 =

4 RT =

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CURRENT (Table 6.1b)

Measured
Measured Calculated
Total
Resistance Current Current (CDR)
S.No. Current
IX Amp IX Amp
IT Amp

1 R1 = I1 =

2 R2 = I2 =

3 R3 = I3 =

VOLTAGE (Table 6.1c)

Measured Calculated
Measured
Total Voltage (Ohm’s
Resistance Voltage
S.No. Voltage Law)
EX Volts
ET Volts EX Volts

1 R1 = E1 =

2 R2 = E2 =

3 R3 = E3 =

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

 FORMULAS

Resistance R = V/I

Voltage E = IR

Total Resistance 1/RT =1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

Absolute Error Ea = Actual Value – Observed Value

% E=(Actual Value – Observed

Percentage Error Value)*100

Actual Value

IX = RT*IS
Current Divider Rule
RX

 CALCULATION

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

PROCEDURE (6-b)
To study and verify experimentally Kirchhoff’s Current Law in single and
multiple nodes DC circuit.

 Construct the circuit shown in Figure.

8) Construct the circuit shown in Figure 6.2.

4
A
1

Vs R1 R2 R3 R4 V
3
A
6
Vs = ______V, R1 = ______Ω, R2 = ______ Ω, R3 = ______ Ω, R4 =
______ Ω

Figure 6.2

2) Set the Dc supply to 15V by using DMM. Pick the resistances having values R1, R2, R3 &
R4 and verify their resistance by using DMM and Color Coding method. Record it in the
Table 6.2a.

3) Measure Current through each resistor with DMM and record it in the Table 6.2b.

4) Verify Kirchhoff’s Current Law experimentally.

5) Measure Voltage V delivered by source and record it in Table 6.2c.

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6) Shut down and disconnect the power supply. Then measure input resistance RT using DMM
and record the value in Table 6.2a.

7) Now calculate, respective Voltages (using Ohms Law).

8) Calculate I1, I2, I3 & I4 using current divider rule and measured resistance value.

9) Verify Kirchhoff’s Current Law theoretically.

Note: Use measured value of resistance for all calculations.

 OBSERVATION

RESISTANCE (Table 6.2a)

Measured
Coded Values
S.No. Resistance

RX Ω

1 R1 =

2 R2 =

3 R3 =

4 R4 =

RT =

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CURRENT (Table 6.2b)

Measured
Measured Calculated
Total
Resistance Current Current (CDR)
S.No. Current
IX Amp IX Amp
IT Amp

1 R1 = I1 =

2 R2 = I2 =

3 R3 = I3 =

4 R4 = I4 =

VOLTAGE (Table 6.2c)

Measured Calculated
Measured
Total Voltage (Ohm’s
Resistance Voltage
S.No. Voltage Law)
EX Volts
ET Volts EX Volts

1 R1 = E1 =

2 R2 = E2 =

3 R3 = E3 =

4 R4 = E4 =

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

 FORMULAS

Resistance R = V/I

Voltage E = IR

Total Resistance 1/RT =1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

Absolute Error Ea = Actual Value – Observed Value

% E=(Actual Value–Observed Value)*

Percentage Error 100

Actual Value

IX = RT*IS
Current Divider Rule
RX

Kirchhoff’s Current Law IT =I1 + I2 + I3

 CALCULATION

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

SIMULATION
Use your circuit simulator to verify the theoretical & Practical results you
have obtained. Also give comments, what you analyze from it.

CONCLUSION
Write the conclusions of this lab.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Lab # 7

OBJECTIVE

a) To simplify and verify complex DC network in to simple parallel circuit with I N,

RN, & RL using Norton’s Theorem.

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS

Components Equipments
Fixed Resistors UNI-T Digital Multi-meter (UT 55)

K & H MFG. Power Project Board (PP 272)

BASIC DESCRIPTION

Norton's Theorem

Norton's theorem states that:“Any two terminal networks may be replaced by a

simple equivalent circuit consisting of a constant current source IN, shunted by an
internal resistance RN”

Figure-a shows the original network as a block terminated by a load resistance RL.
Figure b shows the Norton equivalent circuit. The Norton current IN is distributed

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between the shunt resistance RN and the load RL. The current IL in RL may be found
from the equation

IL = IN×RN/ RN+RL

The rules for determining the constants in the Norton equivalent circuit are as follows:

1. The constant current IN is the current that would flow in the short circuit between the
load resistance terminals if the load resistance were replaced by a short circuit.

2. The Norton resistance RN is the resistance seen from the terminals of the open load,
looking into the original network, when the voltage sources in the circuit are replaced by
their internal resistance. Thus RN is defined in exactly the same manner as is RTH in
Thevenin's theorem.

The theory of source conversion says that the Norton and Thevinine circuits can be
terminally equivalent and related as follows:

 RN=RT
 ETH=IN * RN
 IN= ETH / RTH

Superposition Theorem

The superposition principle states that:

“The current through or voltage across, any resistive branch of a multi-source

network is the algebraic sum of the contribution due to each source acting
independently.”

When the effects of one source are considered, the others are replaced by their internal
resistances. This principle permits one to analyze circuits without restoring to
simultaneous equations. Superposition is effective only for linear circuit relationship.
Non-linear effects, such as power, which varies as the square of the current or voltage,
cannot be analyzed using this principle.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

PROCEDURE (7-a)
To simplify and verify complex DC network in to simple parallel circuit
with IN, RN, & RL using Norton’s Theorem.

1) Construct the network as shown in Figure 7.1a.

R1 20 R3

1 2

Vs R2 RL

21
Vs = ________V, R1 = ________Ω, R2 = ________ Ω, R3 = __________ Ω

Figure 7.1a

2) Remove the RL from the circuit across which Norton equivalents have to be found.

3) For RN of the circuit, remove the voltage source and short circuit the open terminals.
Now place an ohm meter across A and B and record it in the Table 7.1a.

4) Verify your observation, by calculating the RN.

5) For IN, retain the source back into the circuit and place an ammeter connecting the
terminals A and B.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

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6) The value of the current is the short circuit current i.e. IN and records it in the Table
7.1a.

7) Also compute the value of the Norton’s equivalent current and records it in the Table
7.1a.

8) Now construct the Norton’s equivalent circuit and measure the IL and VAB. (That is vary
the supply voltage until DMM indicates the value IN )Also calculate the value of IL and
VAB by using methods other than Norton’s theorem.
 Source Transformation
9) Construct the Norton’s equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 7.1b (That is varying the
supply voltage until DMM indicates the value IN).

10) Measure the supply voltage. Measure VAB and IL and record them in Table 7.1b. Are
these values the same as obtained in part (7-a)?

In Rn RL V

1
In = ________A, Rn = ________Ω, RL = ________ Ω

Figure 7.1b

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 OBSERVATION

RESISTANCE & CURRENT (Table 7.1a)

Measured Calculated Measured Calculated

Norton Norton
Norton Current Norton
S.No. Current Resistance
IN Amp Resistance
IN Amp RN Ω
RN Ω

VOLTAGE & CURRENT (Table 7.1b)

Measured Calculated Measured Calculated

Voltage Current
S.No. Voltage Current
Vab Volts IL Amp
Vab Volts IL Amp

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 FORMULAS

VX = RX*VS
Voltage Divider Rule
RT

IX = RT*IS
Current Divider Rule
RX

Power Dissipation P=I x Vs

 CALCULATION

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

SIMULATION
Use your circuit simulator to verify the theoretical & Practical results you have
obtained. Also give comments, what you analyze from it.

CONCLUSION
Write the conclusions of this lab.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Lab # 8

OBJECTIVE

a) To simplify and verify complex DC network in to simple Series circuit with VTH,
RTH, & RL using Thevenien's Theorem.

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS

Components Equipments
Fixed Resistors UNI-T Digital Multi-meter (UT 55)

Variable Resistor K & H MFG. Power Project Board

(PP 272)

BASIC DESCRIPTION

Thevenien's Theorem states that:

“It is possible to simplify any linear circuit, no matter how complex, to an equivalent
circuit with just a single voltage source and series resistance connected to a load”.

Thevenien's Theorem is especially useful in analyzing power systems and other circuits
where one particular resistor in the circuit (called the "load" resistor) is subject to change,
and re-calculation of the circuit is necessary with each trial value of load resistance, to
determine voltage across it and current through it. Thevenien's Theorem makes this easy
by temporarily removing the load resistance from the original circuit and reducing what's
left to an equivalent circuit composed of a single voltage source and series resistance. The
load resistance can then be re-connected to this "Thevenien equivalent circuit" and
calculations carried out as if the whole network were nothing but a simple series circuit.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

PROCEDURE (8-a)
To simplify and verify complex DC network in to simple Series circuit with
VTH, RTH, & RL using Thevenien's Theorem.

1) Construct the network as shown in Figure 8.1a.

R1 20 R3

1 2

Vs R2 RL

21
Vs = ________V, R1 = ________Ω, R2 = ________ Ω, R3 = __________ Ω

Figure 8.1a

2) Remove the RL from the circuit across which the Thevinine equivalents have to be
evaluated.

3) To find the RTH remove the voltage-source from the circuit and short circuit the terminals
from which the supply was connected. Now place an ohmmeter across the terminals A and
B and record the value in Table 8.1a.

4) Also confirm the value of the equivalent resistance from calculations and record it in the
Table 8.1a.

5) To find the value of VTH place a voltmeter across the terminals A and B after retaining the
voltage source in the circuit back.

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6) Also confirm the value of the equivalent voltage from calculations and record it in the Table
8.1a.

7) Now construct the thevenine equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 8.1b and measure VAB
and IL. Also calculate the se values by using methods other than thevenine theorem.

3 Rth

Vth RL V

VTH = ________V, RTH = ________Ω, RL = ________ Ω

Figure 8.1b

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

 OBSERVATION

VOLTAGE & RESISTANCE (Table 8.1a)

Measured Calculated Measured Calculated

Thevenien Thevenien
Thevenien Voltage Thevenien Resistance
S.No.
Voltage Resistance
VTH Volts RTH Ω
VTH Volts RTH Ω

VOLTAGE & CURRENT (Table 8.1b)

Measured Calculated Measured Calculated

Voltage Current
S.No. Voltage Current
V Volts IL Amp
V Volts IL Amp

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

 FORMULAS

Series Resistance RT =R1 + R2 + R3

Parallel Resistance 1/RT =1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

VX = RX*VS
Voltage Divider Rule
RT

IX = RT*IS
Current Divider Rule
RX

Power Dissipation P=I x Vs

 CALCULATION

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

SIMULATION
Use your circuit simulator to verify the theoretical & Practical results you
have obtained. Also give comments, what you analyze from it.

CONCLUSION
Write the conclusions of this lab.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Lab # 9

OBJECTIVE

a) To study & verify Superposition Theorem in DC Circuit with multiple

independent sources.

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS

Components Equipments
Fixed Resistors UNI-T Digital Multi-meter (UT 55)

K & H MFG. Power Project Board (PP 272)

BASIC DESCRIPTION

Superposition Theorem

The superposition principle states that:

“The current through or voltage across, any resistive branch of a multi-source

network is the algebraic sum of the contribution due to each source acting
independently.”

When the effects of one source are considered, the others are replaced by their internal
resistances. This principle permits one to analyze circuits without restoring to
simultaneous equations. Superposition is effective only for linear circuit relationship.
Non-linear effects, such as power, which varies as the square of the current or voltage,
cannot be analyzed using this principle.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

PROCEDURE (9-a)
To study & verify Superposition Theorem in DC Circuit with multiple
independent sources.

1) Construct the network as shown in Figure 9.2a.

R1 3 R3

1 2

V1 R2 V2

4
V1 = ______V, V2 = ______V, R1 = ______Ω, R2 = ______ Ω, R3 = ______
Ω

Figure 9.2a

2) Verify the resistances using DMM and record the values in Table 9.2a

3) Using superposition and measured resistance values, calculate the currents indicated in
observation Table 9.2b, for the network of Figure 9.2a.

4) Energize the network of Figure 9.2a and measure the voltages indicated in observation
Table 9.2b, calculate current using Ohm’s Law. Indicate the polarity of the voltages and
direction of currents on Figure 9.2a.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

 OBSERVATION

RESISTANCE (Table 9.2a)

Measured
S.No. Nominal Values
Resistance

RX Ω

1 R1 =

2 R2 =

3 R3 =

VOLTAGE & CURRENT (Table 9.2b)

Measured Calculated Measured Calculated

Voltage Current
S.No. Voltage Current
V Volts I Amp
V Volts I Amp

1 V1 = I1 =

2 V2 = I2 =

3 V3 = I3 =

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

 FORMULAS

Ohm’s Law V=IR

VX = RX*VS
Voltage Divider Rule
RT

IX = RT*IS
Current Divider Rule
RX

 CALCULATION

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

5) Construct the network as shown in Figure 9.2b. Note that source V2 has been removed.

R1 2 R3

V1 R2

V1 = ________V, R1 = ________Ω, R2 = ________ Ω, R3 = __________ Ω

Figure 9.2b

6) Energize the network of Figure 9.2b and measure the voltages indicated in Table 9.2c.

7) Calculate currents using Ohm’s Law.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

 OBSERVATION
VOLTAGE & CURRENT (Table 9.2c)

Measured Calculated Measured Calculated

Voltage Current
S.No. Voltage Current
V Volts I Amp
V Volts I Amp

1 V1 = I1 =

2 V2 = I2 =

3 V3 = I3 =

 CALCULATION

8) Repeat steps # 6 & 7 for the network of Figure 9.2c. Note that source V1 has been
removed.

R1 2 R3

R2 V2

V2 = ________V, R1 = ________Ω, R2 = ________ Ω, R3 =

__________ Ω

Figure 9.2c

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9) Using the results obtained, determine the power delivered to each resistor

 OBSERVATION

VOLTAGE & CURRENT

Measured Measured Calculated

Calculated Current
S.No. Voltage Current
Voltage
V Volts I Amp I Amp
V Volts

1 V1 = I1 =

2 V2 = I2 =

3 V3 = I3 =

 CALCULATION

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

SIMULATION
Use your circuit simulator to verify the theoretical & Practical results you have
obtained. Also give comments, what you analyze from it.

CONCLUSION
Write the conclusions of this lab.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Lab # 10

OBJECTIVE

a) To study & verify maximum power transfer theorem in a series DC circuit.

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS

Components Equipments
Fixed Resistors UNI-T Digital Multi-meter (UT 55)

Variable Resistor K & H MFG. Power Project Board

(PP 272)

BASIC DESCRIPTION

The maximum power transfer theorem states that in a linear, bilateral DC network,
maximum power is delivered to the load when the load resistance is equal to the internal
resistance of a source.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem can be stated as – A resistive load, being connected
to a DC network, receives maximum power when the load resistance is equal to the
internal resistance known as (Thevenin’s equivalent resistance) of the source network as
seen from the load terminals. The Maximum Power Transfer theorem is used to find the
load resistance for which there would be the maximum amount of power transfer from the
source to the load.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

PROCEDURE (10-a)
To study & verify maximum power transfer theorem in a series DC circuit.

1) In this part of experiment the Thevenin equivalent circuit will be used experimentally to
study the concept of maximum power transfer.

R1 20 R3

1 2

Vs R2 RL

21

Vs = ________V, R1 = ________Ω, R2 = ________ Ω, R3 = __________ Ω

Figure 10.1

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3 Rth

Vth RL V

VTH = ________V, RTH = ________Ω, RL = ________ Ω

Figure 10.2

2) The circuit of Figure 10.2 is the same as that in Figure 10.1a, except that in Figure 10.2, RL
is a variable resistance. The Thevenin equivalent portion of this circuit can be interpreted
as representing the terminal equivalent of a more complicated circuit such as a DC power
supply or a generator.
3) For this part of experiment, we want to examine the power delivered from the supply to the
load and determine what load resistor value will dissipate the most power. What value of
RT should result in maximum power dissipation in RL?
RL = __________

4) Calculate the maximum power dissipated in RL. PL = __________

5) Construct the circuit as shown in Figure 10.2. The values of VS and RT are the same as
those used for the circuit of Figure 10.1a. Use the decade resistance box for RL since RL
will take on a range of values. For each value of R L given in the Table 10.2, measure IL
and VL and record in the spaces provided. Calculate the corresponding value of power, PL,
dissipated in RL, and record. Make a note of which value of R L gives rise to maximum
power dissipation. Plot PL vs. RL on the attached grid.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

 OBSERVATION
Table 10.2

Measured Measured Calculated

Resistance
Current Voltage VL Power
S. No.
RL (KΩ) (Volts)
IL (mA) PL (mW)

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

7 7

8 8

9 9

10 10

 CALCULATION

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

SIMULATION
Use your circuit simulator to verify the theoretical & Practical results you
have obtained. Also give comments, what you analyze from it.

CONCLUSION
Write the conclusions of this lab.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Lab # 11

OBJECTIVE

a) To study and analyze mesh analysis in complex networks with multiple voltage
sources and loops.

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS

Components Equipments
Fixed Resistors UNI-T Digital Multi-meter (UT 55)

K & H MFG. Power Project Board

(PP 272)

BASIC DESCRIPTION

Mesh or loop analysis is developed by applying KVL around loops in the circuit. It results
in a system of linear equations which must be solved for unknown currents.

Mesh analysis works by arbitrarily assigning mesh currents in the essential meshes. An
essential mesh is a loop in the circuit that does not contain any other loop. Once the essential
meshes are found, the mesh currents need to be labeled. A mesh current is a current that
loops around the essential mesh. The mesh current might not have a physical meaning but
it is used to set up the mesh analysis equations. When assigning the mesh currents it is
important to have all the mesh currents loop in the same direction. This will help prevent
errors when writing out the equations. The convention is to have all the mesh currents
looping in a clockwise direction.

The reason to use mesh currents instead of just using KCL and KVL to solve a problem is
that the mesh currents can account for any unnecessary currents that may be drawn in when
using KCL and KVL. Mesh analysis ensures that the least possible number of equations
regarding currents is used, greatly simplifying the problem.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

PROCEDURE (11-a)
To study and analyze mesh analysis in complex networks with multiple
voltage sources and loops.

1) Construct the network as shown in Figure 11.1.

V3
3 R6 8 9
A
4 R7
5 6
R1 R4

R2 V2
V1
1 2 7
R3 R5
V1 = ______V, V2 = ______V, V3 = ______V, R1 = ______Ω, R2 = ______
Ω,

Figure 11.1

 Identify mesh (loops).

 Assign a current to each mesh.
 Apply KVL around each loop to get an equation in terms of the loop currents.
 Solve the resulting system of linear equations.
 After finding each mesh current, calculate voltage drop and current through every resistor
and record the values in Table 11.1.

 OBSERVATION

V1= _____, V2= _____, V3= _____

R1= _____, R2= _____, R3= ______, R4= ______, R5= ______, R6= ______

R7= _____

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

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Table 11.1

Calculated Value Observed Value

Resistance Voltage Current Voltage Current

R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

R7

 FORMULAS

VX = RX*VS
Voltage Divider Rule
RT

IX = RT*IS
Current Divider Rule
RX

 CALCULATION

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

SIMULATION
Use your circuit simulator to verify the theoretical & Practical results you have
obtained. Also give comments, what you analyze from it.

CONCLUSION
Write the conclusions of this lab.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Lab # 12
a) To study and analyze the conversion of star – delta & delta – star and to verify
experimentally that these network are equivalent to each other.

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS

Components Equipments
Fixed Resistors UNI-T Digital Multi-meter (UT 55)

K & H MFG. Power Project Board

(PP 272)

BASIC DESCRIPTION

In series or parallel combination of resistors, we define connection by focusing at two

resistors at a time, and then declaring the nature of connection that either it is series or
parallel. However, when we have to analyze three resistances at a time then instead of series
and parallel, we define the connectivity of resistors as “star” connection or “delta”
connection. Such type of connections becomes more important when we study three phase
power systems. Also, these connections are applicable not only for resistor; they are defined
either for individual R (resistance), XL (inductive reactance), Xc (capacitive reactance) or
Z (impedance) as whole according to the nature of system under consideration.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

PROCEDURE (12-a)
To study and analyze the conversion of star – delta & delta – star and to
verify experimentally that these network are equivalent to each other.

1) Construct the network as shown in Figure 12.1.

1
R1 R2
3 4
R3
Vs

R4 2 R5

Vs =_____V, R1 =_____Ω, R2 =_____ Ω, R3 =_____ Ω, R4

=_____Ω, R5=_____ Ω

Figure 12.1

R1 R2
4
3
Vs
Za 2 Zb

5 Zc

Vs =_____V, R1 =_____Ω, R2 =_____ Ω, R3 =_____ Ω, R4

=_____Ω, R5=_____ Ω
Figure 12.2

2) Measure the current ‘I’ and voltage ‘Vab’ in Figure 8.1 and record in the Table 12.1.

3) Calculate the equivalent Y for Δ the formed by three resistors (using RY=R / 3)

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

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4) Insert the values of resistors in the Y as shown in Figure 8.1 and calculate the power
absorbed P and record it in the Table 12.1.

5) Construct the network as shown in Figure 12.2.

6) Measure the current ‘I’ and voltage ‘Vab’ Figure 12.2 and record in the Table 12.1.

7) Calculate the power absorbed P of Figure 12.2and record it in the Table 12.1.

 OBSERVATION

VOLTAGE, CURRENT & POWER (Table 12.1)

Measured Calculated Measured Calculated Calculated

Voltage Current
Voltage Current Power
S.No.
Vab Volts IT Amp Dissipation
Vab Volts IT Amp
P

Figure
12.1

Figure
12.2

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

 FORMULAS

R1 = RA * RC / RA+RB+RC

Delta To Star R2 = RB * RC / RA+RB+RC

R3 = RA * RB / RA+RB+RC

RA = (R1 + R3) + ((R1+R3)/R2)

Star To Delta RB = (R2 + R3) + ((R2+R3)/R1)

RC = (R1 + R2) + ((R1+R2)/R3)

VX = RX*VS
Voltage Divider Rule
RT

IX = RT*IS
Current Divider Rule
RX

Power Dissipation P=I x Vs

 CALCULATION

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

SIMULATION
Use your circuit simulator to verify the theoretical & Practical results you
have obtained. Also give comments, what you analyze from it.

CONCLUSION
Write the conclusions of this lab.

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Lab # 13

OBJECTIVE

a) To study and analyze basic principle operation of transformer.

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS

Components Equipments
Fixed Resistors UNI-T Digital Multi-meter (UT 55)

Capacitors Power Project Board (PP 272)

Transformer GW Instek Oscilloscope (GOS-630FC)
Connecting wires GW Instek Function Generator (GFG-
8255A)

BASIC DESCRIPTION

a) Transformer

A transformer is a device that transfers Electrical energy from one circuit to another
through electromagnetic induction, without a change in frequency. The winding
connected to the energy source is called “Primary”, while the winding connected to
the load is called “Secondary”. A step-up transformer receives electrical energy at
one voltage and delivers it at a higher voltage. Conversely, step-down transformer
receives electrical energy at one voltage and delivers it at a lower voltage.

For practical applications, the apparent power at input to primary circuit (S = Vp Ip)
is equal to the apparent power at the secondary (S = Vs Is) i.e:

Vp * Ip= Vs * Is

The primary and secondary voltages of a transformer satisfy the following equation:

Vp / Vs = Np / Ns

The currents in the primary and secondary circuits are related in the following
manner:

Ip / Is = Ns / Np

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PROCEDURE (13-a)
To study and analyze Basic Principle of Operation of Transformer.

1) Construct the circuit of Figure 13.5. Insert measured resistor values. Set the input
voltage to 20V (p-p) using function generator.
2) Measure and record the primary and secondary (rms) voltages and current with
DMM. Using the measured values above, calculate the turns ratio and power.
Record the values in Table 13.5.

R1 7
1
2
T1
Vpp R2

A C

3 8

B R =_______
D Ω, R =_______ Ω
Vs =_______V, F =_______Hz, 1 2

_
Figure 13.5

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 OBSERVATION
Table 13.5

Measured Value Observed Value

Vp Ip Pp Vs Is Ps

Turns Ratio = _________

3) Construct the circuit of figure 13.6. Note the new positions of terminals A through
D, i.e: transformer is hooked up in the reverse manner. Insert measured resistor
values.
Set the input voltage to 2V (p-p) using oscilloscope.

4) Measure and record the primary and secondary (rms) voltages and current with
DMM. Using the measured values above, calculate the turns ratio and power.
Record the values in Table 13.6.

R1 7
1
2
T1
Vpp R2

C A

3 8
Vs =_______V, F =_______Hz, R1 =_______ Ω, R2 =_______ Ω

Figure 13.6
D B

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 OBSERVATION

Table 13.6

Measured Value Observed Value

Vp Ip Pp Vs Is Ps

Turns Ratio = _________

 FORMULAS

Charge Q = CV

Series Capacitance 1/CT =1/C1 + 1/C2 + ---- + 1/Cn

Parallel Capacitance CT =C1 + C2 + ---- + Cn

Series Inductance LT = L1 + L2 + ---- + Ln

Parallel Inductance 1/LT = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + ---- + Ln

Primary and Secondary Vp/Vs = Np/Ns

Voltages

Primary and Secondary Ip/Is = Ns/Np

Current

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

 CALCULATION

SIMULATION
Use your circuit simulator to verify the theoretical & Practical results you
have obtained. Also give comments, what you analyze from it.

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Conclusions
Write the conclusions of this lab.

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Lab # 14

OBJECTIVE

 To study working of an Oscilloscope & Function Generator.

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS

Components Equipments
Fixed Resistors UNI-T Digital Multi-meter (UT 55)

K & H MFG. Power Project Board

(PP 272)
GW Instek Oscilloscope (GOS-630FC)
GW Instek Function Generator (GFG-8020H)

BASIC DESCRIPTION

The Oscilloscope

The oscilloscope is one of the most important electronic instruments available for making
circuit measurements. It displays a curve plot of time-varying voltage on the oscilloscope
screen. The oscilloscope provided with GW Instek Oscilloscope (GOS-630FC) is a dual
trace oscilloscope that looks and acts like a real oscilloscope. A dual trace oscilloscope
allows the user to display and compare two time-varying voltages at one time.

The controls on the oscilloscope are as follows:

1. The TIME BASE control adjusts the time scale on the horizontal axis in time per division
when Y/T is selected. When B/A is selected, the horizontal axis no longer represents time.
The horizontal axis now represents the voltage on the channel A input and vertical axis
represents the voltage on channel B input. When A/B is selected, the horizontal axis
represents the voltage on the channel B input and the vertical axis represents the voltage on
the channel A input. The X_POS control determines the horizontal position where the curve
plot begins.

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2. The CHANNEL A control adjusts the volts per division on the vertical axis for the
channel A curve plot. The Y-POS control determines the vertical position of the channel A
curve plot relative to the horizontal axis. Selecting AC places a capacitance between the
channel A vertical input and the circuit testing point. Selecting “0” connects channel

A vertical input to ground.

3. The CHANNEL B control adjusts the volts per division of the vertical axis for the
channel B curve plot. The Y-POS determines the vertical position of the channel B curve
plot relative to the horizontal axis. Selecting AC places a capacitance between the channel
B vertical input and the circuit test point. Selecting “0” connects the channel B vertical
input to ground.

4. The trigger settings control the conditions under which a curve plot is triggered (begins
to display). Triggering can be internal (based on one of the input signals) or external (based
on a signal applied to the oscilloscope external trigger input). With internal triggering
AUTO, A, or B. If A is selected, the curve plot will be triggered by channel A input signal.
If |B is selected, the curve plot will be triggered by channel B input signal. If you expect a
flat input wave-shape or you want the curve plot displayed as soon as possible, select
AUTO. The display can be set to start on positive or negative slope of the input by selecting
the appropriate EDGE selection. The trigger LEVEL control determines the voltage level
of the input signal waveform, in divisions on the vertical axis, before the waveform will
begin to display.

Once a circuit simulation has been activated and a voltage curve plot has been displayed on
the oscilloscope screen, the oscilloscope probes can be moved to other test points in the
circuit without running the simulation again. Moving the probes automatically redraws the
voltage curve plot for the new test point. You can also fine tune the settings either during
or after a simulation and the display will be redrawn on the screen automatically. You can
‘pause’,’ résumé’ through the “Analysis Option”. The zoom feature can be used by using
“Expand”. Normal size will be restored by clicking “Reduce”. You can learn other features
through the help menu.

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The Function Generator

The function generator is a voltage source that supplies different time-varying voltage
functions. The GW Instek Function Generator can supply sine wave, square wave, and
triangular wave voltage functions. The wave-shape, frequency, amplitude, duty cycle, and
dc offset can be easily changed. It has three voltage output terminals. Connect the COM
terminal to ground symbol. The +ve terminal provides output voltage that is positive with
respect to the COM terminal and the –ve terminal proves an output voltage that is negative
with respect to the COM terminal.

The controls on the function generator are as follows:

1. You can select a wave-shape by clicking the appropriate wave-shape on the top of the
function generator.

2. The frequency control allows you adjust the frequency of the output voltage up to 999

MHz. Click up or down arrow to adjust the frequency, or click the frequency box and type
the desired frequency.

3. The AMPLITUDE control allows you to adjust the amplitude of the output voltage
measured from the reference level (common) to peak level. The peak to peak value is twice
the amplitude setting.

4. The OFFSET control adjusts the dc level of the voltage curve generated by the function
generator. An offset of 0 positions the curve plot along the x-axis with an equal positive
and negative voltage setting. A positive offset raises the curve plot above the x-axis and a
negative offset lowers the curve plot below the x-axis.

PROCEDURE (14-a)

a) From the instrument panel pull down the Function generator and Oscilloscope and connect
them as shown in Figure 1.

b) You can select different colors of the wires by double clicking the line and choosing the
colors. Select sine wave from the function generator.

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c) Set frequency to 1 kHz and amplitude to 10V. On the oscilloscope start with the Time Base
of 0.2ms/div and channel A, B settings of 5V/div.

d) Click the on-off switch to run the analysis. Connect the positive output of the function
generator to oscilloscope channel A input and negative output to channel B input. You may
use red color for Ch. A and blue to Ch. B, if you wish

 OBSERVATION

Primary Secondary

Voltage Voltage Turn Ratio

S.No.
VP Volts VS Volts NP/ NS

Figure 1

Figure 2

 FORMULAS

Primary and Secondary Voltages Vp/Vs = Np/Ns

Primary and Secondary Current Ip/Is = Ns/Np

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e) CALCULATION

Conclusions
Write the conclusions of this lab.

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

IQRA University, Main Campus, Karachi