23ECE181/CCE181 Electrical Engineering Laboratory

B. Tech (Electronics and Communication Engineering)

Laboratory Manual
(2024-2025 ODD SEMESTER)

Prepared by Dr. Ramanand Sagar Sangam

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Amrita School of Engineering, Coimbatore – 641112
23ECE181/CCE181 Electrical Engineering Laboratory L-T-P-C: 0-0-3-1
Course Outcomes:
CO1: Identify electrical components and their specifications
CO2: Measure electrical quantities such as voltage and current
CO3: Verify theorems for dc circuits
CO4: Understand the operation of electrical machines

CYCLE Week Expt. Name of the Experiment Lab activity to Weightage CO

No. No be focused
1 - Introduction to the lab course - Evaluation
23ECE181/CCE181 Electrical procedure and NA NA
Engineering Laboratory list of
experiments
2 1 Identification of electrical Bread Board
components and their Connections. NA 1
specifications. Theory about the
components to
be written in
their
observation note
3 2 Familiarization of measuring Series and
equipment parallel
connection of 5 1, 2
I resisters- voltage
and current
measurement
4 3 Waveform Generation using FG Offset addition,
and measurement using DSO trigger, DSO
manual
measurement, 5 2
variation in
scaling
5 4 Verification of Kirchhoff’s Practical
Voltage law verification KVL 5 2, 3
6 5 Verification of Kirchhoff’s Practical
Current law verification KCL 5 2, 3
7 - Midterm 20
8 6 Verification of Superposition Practical 5 3
theorem verification
9 7 Verification of Thevenin’s Practical 5 3
Theorem verification
II 10 8 Single phase transformers – Turns ratio 5 4
turns ratio measurement, Step measurement
down
11 9 Design of a touch sensor circuit System NA 4
development
12 10 Fabrication of a touch sensor System soldering 5 4
and verification
13 - Practice lab - - -
After End semester Theory Lab End Semester 40
Exams*
Internal: CA (40) + Midterm (20)

External: End Semester (40)

Components of CA Evaluation: [Weightage 40 Marks]

ONLY LETTER GRADES [O, A, B, C, P, F] to be awarded for all parameters.Each
experiment will be evaluated for 40 Marks using LETTER GRADES.
1. Proper circuit connection - 10 marks
2. Output - 10 marks
3. Viva voce - 10 marks
4. Report - 10 marks

Evaluation Policy (Grading System): Rubric based.

Rubric Notation to be Weightage*

used
Outstanding O 1
Good A 0.8
Average B 0.6
Below Average C 0.4
Poor P 0.2
Fail F 0
*Liable to change

Letter O A B C P F
Grade
Proper Proper Proper Circuit with Circuit with circuit not Absent
circuit circuit circuit, loose hanging wire connected
connection colour code connections
not
followed
Output Proper Proper Proper No output but No output Absent
circuit output for output for circuit but circuit
70% cases 50% cases connections connections
are correct are not
correct
Viva voce Answered Answered Answered Answered Answered Absent
all the 80% 50% 30% 10%
questions questions questions questions questions
correctly correctly correctly correctly correctly
Report Neat report Neat report Neat report Tidy report Tidy report Absent
with with with poor but complete AND
necessary necessary labelling incomplete
labels and labels and and
diagrams poor diagrams
diagrams
Assessment Scheme for Mid Term Examination
Process or procedure related Weightage 10 Marks
1 Selection of 5
equipment/component/instrument
2 Diagrammatic representation with 5
necessary labels
Experiment Outcome related Weightage 10 Marks
3 Proper circuit connection 5
4 Output 10
5 Interpretation of results 5
TOTAL 20

Assessment Scheme for End Semester Examination

Process or procedure related Weightage 15 Marks
1 Selection of 5
equipment/component/instrument
2 Diagrammatic representation with 5
necessary labels
3 Neatness in circuit arrangement 5
Experiment Outcome related Weightage 15 Marks
4 Proper circuit connection 5
5 Output 5
6 Interpretation of results 5
Viva Voce 10 Marks
TOTAL 40

Prepared by Dr. Ramanand Sagar Sangam

Faculty Involved
Class Faculty1 Faculty2 Faculty3
I ECE A – B2 Ms Karthigha Balamurugan Dr. Aravinth J Dr. Deepthi P
I ECE A – B1 Dr. Aravinth J Ms. Karthigha Balamurugan Dr. Deepthi P
I ECE B – B1 Dr. Harshavardhan Singh Dr. Appu Rshikesan Paduthol Dr. Deepthi P
I ECE B – B2 Dr. Harshavardhan Singh Dr. Manikandan A Dr. Deepthi P
I ECE C – B1 Dr. Ramanand Sagar Sangam Dr. Binoy B Nair Dr. Deepthi P
I ECE C – B2 Dr. Prabhu E Dr. Ramanand Sagar Sangam Dr. Deepthi P
I CCE B – B1 Dr. Harshavardhan Singh Dr. Manikandan A Ms. Karthigha
Balamurugan
I CCE A – B2 Dr. Manikandan A Dr. Ganesan M Ms. Karthigha
Balamurugan
23ECE181/CCE181 Electrical Engineering Laboratory 2024-2025

Experiment 1: Identification of Electrical Components and their

Specifications.
Objective:
The laboratory emphasizes the practical, hands-on component of this course. It
complements the theoretical material presented in lecture, and as such, is integral and
indispensible to the mastery of the subject. There are several items of importance here
including proper safety procedures, required tools, and laboratory reports. This exercise
will finish with a section on component identification. In this lab, many different
electronic components are used including passive devices such as resistors and
capacitors as well as semiconductors such as diodes and transistors, and finally,
integrated circuits.
There are a multitude of components used in electronic manufacturing. From diodes to
connectors and FPGAs, each electronic component carries out a specific function used
for a variety of purposes.
Through-Hole Components
Through-hole components have leads that are placed through the mounting holes on a
circuit board. There are two main types of through-hole components, and they are axial
and radial. Axial components have one lead on each side of the component body, like
arms. The arms must be bent in order to be inserted through the holes on a circuit
board. Radial components have two or more legs extending from the bottom of the
component body.

Surface Mount Components

Surface mount components are created to be mounted precisely on the printed circuit
board (PCB). Unlike through-hole, surface mount components can consist of both
leaded and leadless. Some commonly used surface mount part includes chip resistors,
ceramic capacitors, diodes, and transistors. The leaded surface mount components
consist of one of the following styles: gull wing, j-lead, l-lead, flat lead, and I-lead. On
the other hand, the leadless components do not have metal leads protruding out of the

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component body. Instead, you may see terminals, terminations, castellations, and ball
grid arrays.

Identification of the Component:

Every component contains a specific marking either on the body or stated on the
packaging. The specific mark or code will contain the manufacturer’s unique part
number, value and tolerance, polarity, and color-coded bands to indicate
resistance. Knowing this information regarding component identification comes in
handy when reviewing the bill of martials (BOM) list or other assembly drawings. The
BOM will contain a list of components by part numbers, quantities, and reference
designator. Reference designators indicate a specific location for each component to
be placed on the board.

Polarity vs Position
The components used on a printed circuit board (PCB) have their own specific
function. Polarity of a component involves having both positive and negative
connections. The positive (+) end is known as the anode, and the negative (-)
connection is called a cathode. On a PCB, you will see a “+” or “-“sign. This indicates
the proper installation of the component.

Component orientation or position has to do with the component being installed a

certain way. Some components such as SoC ICs will contain orientation marks or
symbols on the body. Markings will consist of a notch, dimple, wedge, stripe, or
numbers. These symbols help indicate where the first pin starts so the component will
be placed on the board correctly.

Electrical/ Electronic Components

1. Resistors and Potentiometers

Resistors are perhaps the single most common component. They are classified as
passive devices (versus active devices AKA semiconductors). Resistors have two leads
and are not directional so they cannot be inserted backwards. Leads are usually axial
(i.e., emanating from opposite ends). The physical size of a resistor indicates its power
handling capacity, not its resistance. The general purpose lab resistor is usually a carbon
film type, 1/4-watt dissipation. Resistance values are shown via a color coded series
of bands for most types, although high precision resistors may have the value printed
directly on the body.

Potentiometers may be either rotary or linear travel (slider), with rotary being the most
common. Most rotary pots are 3/4 turn, although precision trim pots may be 20 turns or
more. Typically, the center of the three connections is the wiper arm. Rotary pots may
be designed for panel mount (for example, a volume control on a stereo) or board mount
(such as a calibration control). The taper of a pot indicates how resistance and position
are related. Pots may have a linear taper or a specialized audio taper (log taper). A linear
taper means that a specific degree of rotation will produce the same resistance change.
Rotating the shaft half way, for example, results in a 50/50 split of the resistance. In
contrast, an audio taper pot would show a 10/90 split. Pots are also available in multi-
gang, that is, several pots controlled by one common shaft.

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The resistance value, tolerance, and wattage rating are generally printed onto the body
of the resistor as numbers or letters when the resistors body is big enough to read the
print, such as large power resistors. But when the resistor is small such as a 1/4-watt
carbon or film type, these specifications must be shown in some other manner as the
print would be too small to read.
So to overcome this, small resistors use coloured painted bands to indicate both their
resistive value and their tolerance with the physical size of the resistor indicating its
wattage rating. These coloured painted bands produce a system of identification
generally known as a Resistors Colour Code.

1.1 The Standard Resistor Colour Code Chart

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1.2 The Resistor Colour Code Table

Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 1

Brown 1 10 ± 1%

Red 2 100 ± 2%

Orange 3 1,000

Yellow 4 10,000

Green 5 100,000 ± 0.5%

Blue 6 1,000,000 ± 0.25%

Violet 7 10,000,000 ± 0.1%

Grey 8 ± 0.05%

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White 9

Gold 0.1 ± 5%

Silver 0.01 ± 10%

None ± 20%

1.3 Calculating Resistor Colour Code Values

The Resistor Colour Code system is all well and good but we need to understand how
to apply it in order to get the correct value of the resistor. The “left-hand” or the most
significant coloured band is the band which is nearest to a connecting lead with the
colour coded bands being read from left-to-right as follows:
Digit, Digit, Multiplier = Colour, Colour x 10 colour in Ohm’s (Ω)
For example, a resistor has the following coloured markings;
Yellow Violet Red = 4 7 2 = 4 7 x 102 = 4700Ω or 4k7 Ohm.
The fourth and fifth bands are used to determine the percentage tolerance of the resistor.
Resistor tolerance is a measure of the resistors variation from the specified resistive
value and is a consequence of the manufacturing process and is expressed as a
percentage of its “nominal” or preferred value.
Typical resistor tolerances for film resistors range from 1% to 10% while carbon
resistors have tolerances up to 20%. Resistors with tolerances lower than 2% are called
precision resistors with the or lower tolerance resistors being more expensive.
Most five band resistors are precision resistors with tolerances of either 1% or 2% while
most of the four band resistors have tolerances of 5%, 10% and 20%. The colour code
used to denote the tolerance rating of a resistor is given as:
Brown = 1%, Red = 2%, Gold = 5%, Silver = 10 %
If resistor has no fourth tolerance band then the default tolerance would be at 20%.

2. Capacitors

Capacitors are also classified as passives and can be thought of as very short term
energy storage devices. Capacitors are dual lead but may have either axial or radial
(radiating from one end) leads. Unlike resistors, the physical size of a capacitor offers

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a clue as to its capacitance and voltage rating. All other factors being equal the greater
the capacitance or voltage rating, the larger the capacitor. Most smaller capacitors
(below 1 μF) are not polarized and can be inserted into a circuit either way. The more
popular dielectrics for this range include the ceramics (usually disk or coin shaped) and
poly film types (polyester, polypropylene, etc.) which are usually block shaped.
Teardrop shaped tantalum capacitors are used commonly for power supply bypass.
They are polarized and must be inserted in the circuit in the specified direction.

Larger capacitance values (over 1 μF) are often realized via aluminum electrolytics.
These are also polarized. Failure to insert these in the proper direction may result in
unpredictable results, including the capacitor exploding. While they do not perform as
well as film types in terms of leakage, accuracy, etc., they are offer high volumetric
efficiency (i.e., small physical size given the capacitance). Very large caps may have
screw terminals in place of wire leads. In years past, color coding was common but this
has generally been replaced with values printed directly on the body of the capacitor.
Sometimes a numeric code is used such as “102”. This is read as 10 followed by 2
zeroes, with the result in picofarads, or 1000 pF (1 nF) in this case. Finally, because
capacitors are charge storage devices, they may present a shock hazard from stored
charge after they are removed from a circuit. This charge may be bled off with a low
value resistance placed across the leads.

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3. Inductors

The third and final passive device is the inductor. Also non-polarized, they normally
have axial leads. Smaller values may be completely encapsulated and appear not much
different from a carbon composition resistor. Others may use some form of jacket or
coating while still others show bare wire. These vary from the size of small resistors to
what appear to be large spools of wire.

4. Diodes

Diodes are a two lead semiconductor. They are polarized and typically have axial leads.
The two leads are referred to as the anode and cathode. Signal diodes are around the
size of 1/4 watt resistors and sometimes use a glass body. The cathode is marked by a
band or stripe on the body of the diode. The cathode of an LED is usually marked by a
flat spot on the plastic housing or by the shorter of the two leads. High power diodes
are much more robust and might appear at first glance to be a short bolt or stud with
leads attached to it. Component numbers are usually stamped on the body of the device.

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5. Transistors

There are many types of transistors. Generally, they are three lead devices. Component
model numbers will be stamped directly onto the case. Small power dissipation (< 500
mW) units will usually be seen in plastic TO-92 cases, round metal TO-5 cans or
variations on the theme. Mid power devices typically use TO-220, TO-202 or the like
“power tab” cases. For higher powers the oval TO-3 cases are employed. A similarly
shaped but slightly smaller variant is the TO-66. Power devices will need to use a heat
sink to keep them cool. TO-92 cases use a flattened front face so that the three pins may
be distinguished from each other without confusion. The round TO-5 can use a small
tab to indicate pin 1.

6. Integrated Circuits

There are a very wide variety of integrated circuits. Multi-lead versions of the TO-5 can
are sometimes used but the most common through-hole package is the Dual In-Line
Package, denoted as DIP or DIL. A single in-line package is also available for some
functions. High power devices often use multi-lead versions of the popular TO-220 and
TO-3 case styles. Like other semiconductors, component model numbers are printed
directly on the package. A notch or dimple will denote which lead is pin 1 on the
DIP/DIL cases.

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7. Transformers

Transformers can vary from tiny audio devices to room size devices used in power
generation and distribution. No matter the size, their job is a simple one: to isolate the
source and load, to match two different impedance devices or to change the voltage
level. A very common application is stepping down a 120 VAC line voltage to a more
modest level so that it can be rectified, filtered, and turned into a stable DC source to
drive electronic circuits. Besides the voltage turns ratio, the most important
characteristic is the VA or volt-amps rating of the device. All other factors being equal,
the higher the VA rating, the larger the transformer. Transformers applicable for
consumer electronics may be either chassis mount with leads or PCB mount with
through-hole pins. Transformers only operate with AC voltages.

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8. Heat Sinks

Heat sinks are not a device, per se, but they are essential tools of semiconductor heat
management. Their job is to effectively move heat from the semiconductor’s case to
the surrounding air, keeping the semiconductor cool. They range in size from small
clip-ons to large extruded aluminum finned plates. Some cases, such as the body of the
TO-3 or the tab of the TO-220 are electrically live. To prevent possible shorts and a
live chassis, non-conductive isolating tabs and grommets are used to attach the
semiconductors to the heat sink.

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9. Plug: Generally, the plug is the movable connector attached to an electrically

operated device's mains cable. The plug has protruding prongs, blades, or pins
(referred to as male) that fit into matching slots or holes (called female) in the sockets.

10. Socket: The socket is fixed on equipment or a building structure and connected to
an energized electrical circuit. Sockets are designed to prevent exposure of bare
energized contacts.

11. Switch: In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can break
an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to
another. Inserting or Removing plug: Before inserting plug switch off the main supply.
When removing a plug from a socket pull at the plug body, not the cable, else internal
connections may be damaged.

12. Breadboard

A typical breadboard or protoboard is shown below:

This particular unit features two main wiring sections with a common strip section
down the center. Boards can be larger or smaller than this and may or may not have the
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mounting plate as shown. The connections are spaced 0.1 inch apart which is the
Standard spacing for many semiconductor chips. These are clustered in groups of five
common terminals to allow multiple connections. The exception is the common strip
which may have dozens of connection points. These are called buses and are designed
for power and ground connections. Interconnections are normally made using small
diameter solid hookup wire, usually AWG 22 or 24. Larger gauges may damage the
board while smaller gauges do not always make good connections and are easy to break.

In the picture below, the color highlighted sections indicate common connection points.
Note the long blue section which is a bus. This unit has four discrete buses available.
When building circuits on a breadboard, it is important to keep the interconnecting
wires short and the layout as neat as possible. This will aid both circuit functioning and
ease of troubleshooting.

Reference:
Semiconductor Devices: Theory and Application Laboratory Manual by James M.
Fiore Version 1.4.7, 11 March 2021.

Lab Activity:
1. The student should be made aware of different electrical/electronic components
and specifications with their ratings.
2. By visual inspection the values like resistance, terminals etc., to be identified.

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Experiment 2: Familiarization of measuring equipment

Objective
Introducing the laboratory instruments and familiarizing with the basic instrument

Pre-Lab Task
Students should know the resistor colour code and gather idea on connecting resistors
in series/parallel combinations in a bread board.
Introduction:
All experiments in the laboratory will be performed at a workbench which has several
basic electronic instruments. They include: (1) A DC power supply. (2) A function
generator. (3) A digital multi-meter (DMM). (4) An oscilloscope (analog/DSO).
On one hand, DC power supplies and function generators are power sources. It means
that they generate power. In other words, they supply us with the power needed to
perform experiments and tests. On the other hand, digital voltmeters and oscilloscopes
are measuring devices that measure different electrical quantities such as voltage,
resistance, current, etc.
DC Power Supply:

The DC power supply output consists of two independent units which can be connected
in different configurations such as series, parallel, or used independently. Some DC
power supplies found in the lab have a third unit which gives a fixed 5 Volts 3 Amperes
that is not adjustable. This dedication of 5-volts unit is important since it is frequently
needed in electronic experiments.

Digital Multi-Meter:

A DMM is a universal meter which measure voltage and current (both DC and AC)
and resistance, with high precision. Some DMMs measure capacitance, inductance,
frequency, and temperature.
A multi-meter or a multi-tester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an
electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one
unit. A typical multi-meter would include basic features such as the ability to measure
voltage, current, and resistance. Analog multi-meters use a micro-ammeter whose
pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different measurements that can be
made. Digital multi-meters (DMM, DVOM) display the measured value in numerals,
and may also display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity being measure

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Lab activity:

1. In the DC power supply, turn the voltage adjustment knob to get several
different voltage values of 1.5V, 14V, 22V. Compare readings on the power
supply display with readings on the DVM. Make sure that the DVM is set for
DC measurements.
2. Reverse the order of the terminals at the power supply. What happens to the
signal?
3. Make a series and parallel connections with resistor and measure the potential
at every node using digital voltmeter and multimeter.
4. Record all these observations in your observation note.
5. For a similar circuit shown below, with R1 = 1 k, R2 = 2.2 k, R3 = 3.3 k, and E
= 10,15 volts, determine the theoretical current and record it in Table shown.
Construct the circuit. Set the DMM to read DC current and insert it in the circuit
at point A. [Remember, ammeters go in-line and require the circuit to be
opened for proper measurement. The red lead should be placed closer to the
positive source terminal]. Record this current in Table. Repeat the current
measurementsat points B and C.

I Theory I Point A I Point B I Point C

6. Using the theoretical current found in problem 6, apply Ohm’s law to

determine the expected voltage drops across R1, R2, and R3. Record these
values in the Theory column of the following Table.

Voltage Theory Measured Deviation

V(R1)
V(R2)
V(R3)

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Experiment 3: Familiarization of DSO and Function Generator

Objective
To be familiar with the usage of function generator and DSO
Pre-Lab Task
Students should know the basic waveforms, terminologies and working principle of
DSO.
Introduction:
An oscilloscope, previously called an oscillograph, and informally known as a scope or
o-scope, CRO (for cathode-ray oscilloscope), or DSO (for the more modern digital
storage oscilloscope), is a type of electronic test instrument that allows observation of
varying signal voltages, usually as a two-dimensional plot of one or more signals as a
function of time. Other signals (such as sound or vibration) can be converted to voltages
and displayed.

Oscilloscope:
An oscilloscope, previously called an oscillograph, and informally known as a scope or
o-scope, CRO (for cathode-ray oscilloscope), or DSO (for the more modern digital
storage oscilloscope), is a type of electronic test instrument that allows observation of
varying signal voltages, usually as a two-dimensional plot of one or more signals as a
function of time. Other signals (such as sound or vibration) can be converted to voltages
and displayed.
Oscilloscopes are used to observe the change of an electrical signal over time, such that
voltage and time describe a shape which is continuously graphed against a calibrated
scale. The observed waveform can be analyzed for such properties as amplitude,
frequency, rise time, time interval, distortion and others. Modern digital instruments
may calculate and display these properties directly. Originally, calculation of these
values required manually measuring the waveform against the scales built into the
screen of the instrument.
The oscilloscope can be adjusted so that repetitive signals can be observed as a
continuous shape on the screen. A storage oscilloscope allows single events to be
captured by the instrument and displayed for a relatively long time, allowing
observation of events too fast to be directly perceptible.
CROs were later largely superseded by digital storage oscilloscopes (DSOs) with thin
panel displays, fast analog-to digital converters and digital signal processors. DSOs
without integrated displays (sometimes known as digitizers) are available at lower cost
and use a general-purpose digital computer to process and display waveforms.

Function Generator:
A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to
generate different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some
of the most common waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine, square,
triangular shapes (See Fig.1). These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot
(which requires an internal or external trigger source). Function generators are used in
the development, test and repair of electronic equipment. For example, they may be
used as a signal source to test amplifiers or to introduce an error signal into a control
loop.

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Fig.1 Different Waveforms generated by a function generator

Digital Multi-Meter:
A DMM is a universal meter which measure voltage and current (both DC and AC) and
resistance, with high precision. Some DMMs measure capacitance, inductance,
frequency, and temperature.
A multi-meter or a multi-tester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an
electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one
unit. A typical multi-meter would include basic features such as the ability to measure
voltage, current, and resistance. Analog multi-meters use a micro-ammeter whose
pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different measurements that can be
made. Digital multi-meters (DMM, DVOM) display the measured value in numerals,
and may also display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity being measured.

Oscilloscope:
An oscilloscope is a type of electronic test instrument that allows observation of
constantly varying signal voltages, usually as a two-dimensional plot of one or more
signals as a function of time. Non-electrical signals (such as sound or vibration) can be
converted to voltages and displayed. Some oscilloscopes can only display one signal at
a time, while others can display up to 2, 3, and 4 channels simultaneously. In our lab
the oscilloscopes have two channels that allow us to display two signals in order to
compare them. Those signals are the input and output voltages. The oscilloscope has
vertical and horizontal scale adjustors that permit us to change the time scale (the
horizontal axis) and the voltage scale (the vertical axis) in order to show the signals
clearly so that the user can read the values displayed on the screen with ease.

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Lab activity:

1. Generate a sinusoidal signal with a peak-to-peak voltage of 10V,5V and a

frequency of 10 kHz and show the waveform on the proper instrument. Roughly
sketch the waveform on the following grid lines and write down what is
displayed on the screen.
2. Change the frequency of the same signal to 15 kHz and visualise the difference.
3. Change the signal to square and triangular waveforms. Keep in mind that when
you change the waveform of the signal recheck that the peak-to-peak voltage is
still 10 V. If not, adjust the voltage to get the required value.
4. Generate a DC voltage of 5 V and show it on the oscilloscope.
5. Reverse the order of the terminals at the power supply. What happens to the
signal?
6. Use trigger and find its operation over the generated signal
7. Use offset addition the generated signal.
8. Record all these observations in your observation note and plot relevant graphs
in graph sheets.

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Experiment 4: Verification of Kirchhoff’s Voltage law

Objective
To verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage law
Pre-Lab Task
Student should identify value of resistor using colour codes and be aware of voltage
and current division principles, Kirchhoff’s Voltage law, measurement of voltage,
connecting the voltmeters and power supply. Theoretically solve and analyse any circuit
of their choice.
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the sum of all voltages in a closed loop must
be zero. A closed loop is a path in a circuit that doesn’t contain any other closed loops.
Loops 1 and 2 in Figure 1 are examples of closed loops.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

Example Circuit

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Steps:

1. Implement the circuit on the breadboard as shown in the diagram

2. Set the variable DC supply
3. Take the reading of each voltmeter for every change
4. Take note for different voltage

Measurement:

V1-2 V2-3 V3-4 V4-1 V1-2+V2-3+V3-4+ V4-1

5V
10V
15V

Lab activity:

1. For the given circuit verify the KVL theoretically and record in your observation
note and compare with the obtained practical readings.

Voltage Theoretical (V) Practical (V)

2. For different resistor values for the given circuit, verify the KVL theoretically
and record in your observation.

3. Determine the Number of branches and n umber of Nodes in the given circuit.

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Experiment 5: Verification of Kirchhoff’s Current law

Objective
To verify Kirchhoff’s Current law
Pre-Lab Task
Student should identify value of resistor using colour codes and be aware of voltage
and current division principles, Kirchhoff’s Current law, measurement of voltage and
current, connecting the voltmeters, ammeter and power supply. Theoretically solve and
analyse any circuit of their choice.
Kirchoff’s Current Law
Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL) deals with the currents flowing into and out of a
given node. KCL states that the sum of all currents at a node must equal zero. This is
illustrated in Figure 2.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

Example Circuit

Steps:

1. Implement the circuit on the breadboard as shown in the diagram

2. Set the variable DC supply
3. Take the reading of each ammeter for every change
4. Take note for different voltage

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Measurement:

Voltage(V) I0 I1 I2 I3 Sum of
currents
5V
10V
15V

Lab activity:

1. For the given circuit verify the KCL theoretically and record in
your observationnote and compare with the obtained practical
readings.

Current through Theoretical (A) Practical (A)

the path
I0
I1
I2
I3

2. For different resistor values for the given circuit, verify the
KCL theoreticallyand record in your observation.

3. Determine and draw the number branches in the given circuit.

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Experiment 6: Verification of Superposition Theorem

Objective
To verify the superposition theorem for the given circuit
Pre-Lab Task
Student should identify value of resistor using colour codes and be aware of voltage
and current division principles, Superposition Theorem, measurement of voltage,
connecting the voltmeters and power supply. Theoretically solve and analyse any circuit
of their choice using superposition theorem.
Superposition theorem
Superposition theorem states that in a lumped, linear, bilateral network consisting more
number of sources each branch current(voltage) is the algebraic sum all currents
(branch voltages), each of which is determined by considering one source at a time and
removing all other sources. In removing the sources, voltage and current sources are
replaced by internal resistances.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

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Example Circuit

Steps:

1. Connect the circuit as per the fig (1).

2. Adjust the output voltage of sources X and Y to appropriate values (Say 15V and
20Vrespectively).
3. Note down the current (IL) through the 560 0hm resistor by using the ammeter.
4. Connect the circuit as per fig (2) and set the source Y (20V) to 0V.
5. Note down the current ( I l) through 560ohm resistor by using ammeter.
6. Connect the circuit as per fig(3) and set the source X (15V) to 0V and source Y to
20V.
7. Note down the current (I2) through the 560 ohm resistor branch by using ammeter.
8. Reduce the output voltage of the sources X and Y to 0V and switch off the supply.
9. Disconnect the circuit.

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Measurement:

From Fig.1
S.No. Applied Voltage at Applied Voltage at Current IL
V1 (V) V2 (V) (mA)
1

From Fig.2
S.No. Applied Voltage at Current IL1
V1 (V) (mA)
1

From Fig.3
S.No. Applied Voltage at Current IL 2
V2 (V) (mA)
1

Analysis

S.No. Load Current Theoretical Practical Values

Values
1 When b o t h sources are
acting IL
2 When only X is acting IL1
3 When only Y is acting IL2

Lab activity:

1. For a simple circuit of your choice, verify the superposition theorem

theoretically and record in your note.
S.No. Load Current Theoretical Values Practical Values
1 When b o t h s o u r c e s
are
acting IL
2 When only X is acting IL1
3 When only Y is acting IL2
2. What do you mean by Unilateral and Bilateral network? Give the limitations of
Superposition Theorem?
3. Can the superposition theorem be applied to non-linear circuits?
4. In Superposition theorem, while considering a source, all other voltage sources
are?
5. In Superposition theorem, while considering a source, all other current sources
are?

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Experiment 7: Verification of Thevenin’s Theorem

Objective
To verify the Thevenin’s theorem for the given circuit
Pre-Lab Task
Student should identify value of resistor using colour codes and be aware of voltage
and current division principles, Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem, measurement of
voltage, current connecting the voltmeters, ammeter and power supply. Theoretically
solve and analyse any circuit of their choice using Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem.

Thevenin’s Theorem
It states that in any lumped, linear network having more number of sources and
elements the equivalent circuit across any branch can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of Theremin’s equivalent voltage source Vth in series with Theremin’s
equivalent resistance Rth. Where Vth is the open circuit voltage across (branch) the two
terminals and Rth is the resistance seen from the same two terminals by replacing all
other sources with internal resistances.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

Example Circuit

To find IL

Figure 1

To Find VTh

Figure 2

To Find RTh

Figure 3

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Steps:

1. Connect the circuit as per fig (1)

2. Adjust the output voltage of the regulated power supply to an appropriate value (Say
20V).
3. Note down the response (current, IL) through the branch of interest i.e. AB (ammeter
reading).
4. Reduce the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 0V and switch-off the
supply.
5. Disconnect the circuit and connect as per the fig (2).
6. Adjust the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 20V.
7. Note down the voltage across the load terminals AB (Voltmeter reading) that gives
Vth.
8. Reduce the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 0V and switch-off the
supply.
9. Disconnect the circuit and connect as per the fig (3).
10. Connect the digital multimeter (DMM) across AB terminals and it should be kept
in resistance mode to measure Thevenin’s resistance (RTh).

Measurement:
Parameter Theoretical Values Practical Values
Vth
RTh
IL

Lab activity:
1. Determine current through current 5 ohms resistor using Norton’s theorem.

2. The internal resistance of a source is 2 Ohms and is connected with an External

Load of 10 Ohms Resistance. What is RTh ?

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Experiment 8: Estimation of Turns Ratio of a Single Phase Transformer

Objective
To find the turns ratio of a single phase transformer.
Pre-Lab Task
Student should be aware of the concepts related to step up and step down of voltage
through transformers and relationship between number of turns and voltage.
1. The number of primary and secondary windings is 90 and 120 respectively. The
secondary voltage is given by 100V. determine the primary voltage.
2. The number of primary and secondary windings is 110 and 240, respectively. The
primary voltage is given by 100V. Determine the secondary voltage.

Theory:

One of the most valuable apparatus in electric systems is the transformer, for it enables
us to utilize different voltage levels across the power system for the most economical
value. Generation of power at the synchronous machine level is normally at a relatively
low voltage, which is most economically desirable. Stepping up this generated voltage
is achieved through power transformers to suit the power transmission requirement to
minimize losses and increase the transmission capability of the lines. This transmission
voltage level is then stepped down in many stages for distribution and utilization
purposes. Transformers are used at all levels of the system. Besides voltage
transformation, in electronic circuits, transformers are used for impedance matching.

The main uses of electrical transformers are for changing the magnitude of an AC
voltage, providing electrical isolation, and matching the load impedance to the source.
Transformers are magnetic circuit elements used in AC circuits for a variety of
applications. Transformers are often used to convert voltages from high to low values,
or from low to high values. They are often used to isolate one AC line from another,
for safety or for equipment isolation. And they are often used to connect two
components with mismatched impedances, such as a high-impedance stereo amplifier
and a low-impedance speaker.

Transformer Turns Ratio Test

Transformer Turns Ratio Test is one of the most popular tests that is used to evaluate
the state of the windings and the core of the transformer. It is carried out as a component
of the acceptance and maintenance test procedure in order to identify any issues that
may have arisen as a result of faulty design, assembly, handling, overloading, fault
situations, or inadequate maintenance.
The turns ratio test for a power transformer is a that determines the ratio of the winding
with high voltage to all of the other windings when the transformer is not under load.
The turns ratio test is carried out on each and every tap of each individual winding. In
point of fact, the no load voltage ratio of a transformer is exactly the same as the turn
ratio. The ratio test was performed on the transformer. Because it has a direct impact
on the transformation of voltage as well as the impedance, the turns ratio is an essential

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characteristic for transformers. This article offers a detailed summary of the turns ratio
test, discussing its fundamentals as well as its methodology and the importance of the
test’s results.
When certain circumstances are met, the ratio of the voltages that are found across a
transformer’s windings is known as the turns ratio of the transformer. In a perfect
transformer, the turns ratio and the voltage ratio would be identical to one another. A
transformer with a turns ratio of 1:2, for instance, will have a primary voltage that is
twice as strong as the secondary voltage.

Importance of the Transformer Turns Ratio Test

The turns ratio test is extremely significant for a number of reasons, including but not
limited to the following:
• During the manufacturing process of transformers, the turns ratio test verifies
that the winding designs are accurate and that the converter satisfies the design
requirements. This is an important aspect of quality control.
• Evaluation of the Health of the Transformer Conducting routine turns ratio
testing is vital for determining the state of the converter’s health and identifying
any modifications in the winding that may have occurred as a result of wear and
tear, deterioration of the insulation, or mechanical stress.
• Fault Detection: The test has the capability of identifying a variety of internal
problems, including open circuits, short circuits, and winding deformations,
amongst others. The early identification of these problems paves the way for
prompt repair and protects against catastrophic breakdowns.
• Evaluation of Efficiency an accurate measurement of the turns ratio is helpful
for evaluating the efficiency of the transformer and the voltage regulation it
provides. Variations from the turns ratio that are predicted can be an indicator
of efficiency degradation.
• The turns ratio test is an essential component of the overall evaluation process
for determining the state of health and functionality of transformers. The turns
ratio is determined during the test, which provides vital insights into the
condition of the transformer, the integrity of the windings, and the overall
efficiency of the device. Testing the turns ratio of transformers on a regular basis
assures their dependability and longevity, which in turn enables power systems
to operate at their full potential.

The Transformer Ratio Formula for Voltage is as Follows

K=V1/V2
Where, V1 = Primary voltage; V2 = Secondary voltage

The Transformer Ratio Formula for Current is as Follows

K=I1/I2
Where, I1 = Primary current; I2 = Secondary current

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𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐾= = =
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑉2 𝑁2 𝐼2
𝐾= = =
𝑉1 𝑁1 𝐼1

If the value of K is
• Greater than 1, then the transformer is step up transformer
• Less than 1, then the transformer is step down transformer
• Equal to 1, then the transformer is isolation transformer

Circuit Diagram

Figure 1

Figure 2

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Steps:

1. Connect the circuit as per fig 2

2. Connect the Voltmeters/Mustimeter across primary and secondary winding of the transformer.
3. Note down the voltage across the load terminals (Voltmeter reading) that gives
K.
4. Estimate the turn ratio with the help of the voltage across secondary and primary winding of the
transformer. Decide the type of transformer.

Measurement:

S. Primary Voltage Secondary Transformer Remarks

No. (V1 Volts) Voltage (V2 Volts) Ratio
K = V2/V1
Step down
transformer

𝑉2 𝑁2
𝐾 = = =___
𝑉1 𝑁1

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Experiment 9: Design of a touch sensor circuit

Objective:

Experiment 9 So when you touch the wires of the touchpad, your body behaves as a
resistor. This means a small amount of current can flow from the plus of the battery, through the
transistor's base, and turn on the transistor. When the transistor is on, current can flow from
collector to emitter of the transistor and the LED will turn on.

Components Used:

1.PCB Line Board

2. Transistor

3.resistor

4.LED

5.power supply

Circuit Diagram:

Output:

• You will see the LED glowing.

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Experiment 10: Fabrication of a touch sensor

(System soldering andverification)

Objective:

Experiment 10 is providing a practice in soldering. output of the circuit may be

measured through voltage / LED / wave form in DSO.

Components Used:

1.PCB Line Board

2. Transistor

3.resistor

4.LED

5.power supply

Circuit Diagram:

A simple application with discrete components to be provided (example is shown figure)

• The same to be placed in a general purpose PCB and connection to be verified.

• Soldering practice to be taught and functionality to be checked.

Output

So when you touch the wires of the touchpad, your body behaves as a resistor. This means a
small amount of current can flow from the plus of the battery, through the transistor's base, and turn on
the transistor. When the transistor is on, current can flow from collector to emitter of the transistor and
the LED will turn on.

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