Unit - II

Waves and Oscillations: Wave motion, simple harmonic motion, wave equation, superposition
principle. Introduction to Electromagnetic Theory, Maxwell's equations, Work done by the
electromagnetic field, Poynting's theorem, Momentum, Angular momentum in electromagnetic fields,
Electromagnetic waves: the wave equation, plane electromagnetic waves, energy carried by
electromagnetic waves

Chapter
2

Wave and Oscillations

Introduction

Before wave motion, we have to understand oscillatory motion which is a kind of periodic motion.
Therefore, we need to understand first the periodic motion.

Periodic Motion: A motion that repeats itself after a certain period of time, is called periodic motion.
Repetition of the motion may be in a circle or a back-and-forth motion about a fixed mean point.

Oscillatory Motion: When the motion repeats itself in a back-and-forth manner about a fixed point, it
is termed as oscillatory motion. It may also be called vibratory motion if the frequency of repetitions is
quite

high.
the

following

characteristics
have
should
that

motion
oscillatory
,

clear
it

is
above

discussion

.
the

From
Frequency: The numbers of repetitions per time, done by the oscillatory body, is called the frequency
(f), of the periodic motion.
Time Period: Time taken to complete, one oscillation, is called the time period (T).
Here, we can have T=
Amplitude: The maximum distance travelled on either side of the fixed point, is called amplitude.

2.1 Simple Harmonic Oscillation

It is a kind of oscillatory motion in which the motion is in a straight path on both the sides of the fixed
point. If we look at the system of S.H.M., as a whole, it can be said that a force, called restoring force is
needed to perform the S.H.M and it always follows Hook's Law, i.e.
F = -kx,

Here, x is the displacement from the mean position and k is the force constant.

2.1.1 Equation of S. H. M. and its Solution

Consider a particle of mass 'm' executing S.H.M along x axis about its mean position such that the
displacement the mean position be x. Then, according to the condition to perform S.H.M,
restoring force F will act on the particle to oppose its motion and is proportional to the displacement.
Therefore;

Fx -x or F = -kx (1)
Physics for Engineers.

Here, k is the constant of proportionality and is known as force constant or force per unit
displacement.

Now, according to the Newton's second law of motion, "the acceleration produced, is defined as
the force applied per unit mass of a moving object" i.e.
d²x F
=

dt² m

Or we can write, Force = mass x acceleration i.e.

d²x (2)
F = m
dt²

From (1) and (2)

d²x d²x k
=
= -kx or -X
mat² dt² m

k (3)
Putting: = @²
m

We have

d²x (4)
+w²x = 0
dt²

This is a second order differential equation and its solution can be written as;
(5)
x = A sin (wt + 8)
The equation (5), gives the instantaneous displacement of the particle, executing S.H.M at any instant of
time. A is the maximum displacement of the particle and is called the displacement amplitude and
(wt+ 8) is called instantaneous phase angle.

2.2 Ideal Simple Harmonic Motion

The ideal S.H.M. can be defined with the help of a particle moving in a circle. "If a particle is moving
on a circular path and a perpendicular is drawn on any diameter of the circle, then the motion of foot of
the perpendicular about the centre of the circle is called ideal S.H.M" as shown in Fig. 2.1 The equation
for instantaneous displacement can be obtained very easily using Fig. 2.1
P

Fig. 2.1
Let a particle, start its motion on a circular track with the initial phase XOA as 8. Let us consider any
arbitrary position. P of the particle such that angle AOP is 8. Let PM is a perpendicular drawn on the
diameter XX'. As the particle moves on the circular path and completes a circle, the point M i.e., the
foot of the perpendicular, moves on the straight path XX', about the mean point O and also complete
one oscillation. The motion of this point M, is an oscillatory motion about the centre of the circle and it
is in perfect straight path, termed as ideal simple harmonic motion. So "the motion of the foot of the
perpendicular, drawn on any diameter from a particle, moving on a circular track is called ideal simple
harmonic motion". The amplitude of the oscillation A is equal to the radius of the circle OX. Now
from the diagram, we can write,
34
Wave and Oscillations.

x = A sin (0+ 8)

Where 8= wt, and w is the angular frequency, i.e., angular distance per unit time.
0
Or @= =
쮸 = 2nf

From equation (3); we have the angular frequency w = √so the time period and the frequency of
S.H.M will be written as;

T = 2π

And, f= =
2π √m

2.2.1 Velocity and Acceleration in S.H.M

We can find the velocity of the particle executing S.H.M. from the expression of the displacement.
x = A sin (wt + 8) (6)
Differentiating it w.r.t. time we get;
dx
V= = Aw cos(wt + 8)
dt

= Aw√1-sin² (wt + 8) = w√/A² - A²sin² (wt + 8)

v=w√A²-x² (7)
This is the expression for the velocity of the particle at any point which has a displacement x from its
mean position. It is well known that particle has maximum velocity at the mean position and minimum
at the extreme point, due to obvious reasons. So, the maximum velocity can be obtained by putting x =
0 and minimum at x = A, i.e.

Vmax = Aw (at mean position)

Vmin = 0 (at extreme position)

Again, differentiating equation (7) w.r.t time, we get acceleration as;

dv
α = =
dt
-Aw² sin (wt + 8)
α = -w²x (8)
The above equation gives acceleration of the oscillating particle at any displacement. From equation (8),
it can be seen that acceleration is proportional to the displacement and in opposite direction of the
motion. This is a standard characteristic of a simple harmonic motion. It is clear from equation (8) that
for the maximum acceleration X is equal to the amplitude A.
So, the maximum acceleration i.e., amax = w²A (at the extreme position)
And the minimum acceleration i.e., amin = 0 (at the mean position)

2.3 Energy of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator

A simple harmonic oscillator possesses both the kinetic energy and the potential energy. Here it can
also be seen that in ideal condition, the law of conservation of energy also holds good during the
complete oscillation of the particle.
The potential energy is given by the amount of work done stored in displacing the particle from the
position 0 to x by applying some force. Thus,
P.E.= f F. dx = kxdx = kx² (9)
Putting the values of k and x, the instantaneous potential energy at any position is;
35
Physics for Engineers

(10)
P.E. = mw²A²sin² (wt + 8)

And the corresponding kinetic energy of the harmonic oscillator, at any instance, is given as
1
K. E. mv2 = m

= mw2A²cos2 (wt + 8)

So, the total energy E of the oscillator at any displacement from the mean position can be obtained as
+P.E

= mw²A²cos² (wt + 8) +mw²A²sin²(wt + 8)

1

(11),
E = mw²A²
2
. It is
Hence, the total energy comes out to be constant and independent of the position of themw.pa²rtAic²leThe K.E and
obvious that the maximum possible value of K.E and P.E would be same as .
P.EIf
ofthe
the harmonic
oscillation
oscillator
starts
at
t = 0canat
also
its be calculated
extremedisplacement
position
with
, thethen
; passage of time, in place of
The average P.E of the simple harmonic oscillator over a cycle, is given as:
<P.E>= kx²dt

KA²sin² (wt + 8)dt

=

i mw²A² sin² (wt + 8)dt

2 T

sin² (wt + 8)dt

= w²A²
T

sin² (wt + 8)dt

<P.E>=mw²A² as [
T
= 1/2] (12)

And similarly, the average kinetic energy for one complete cycle is;
1 1 dx
<K.E>= m²dt
mA ²w²cos² (wt+8) dt

=
mw²4² cos²(wt+8)dt T

<K.E> = mw²A²
1
⇒<K.E><P.E >= mw²A²
mw
4

= = mw²A² (13)
From equations (12) and (13), it can be seen that the total energy is equally divided into kinetic aswell
as potential energy. From here, it is also clear that the total energy of a simple harmonic oscillatoris
always conserved.

36
Wave and Oscillations

2.4 Examples of S.H.M

2.4.1 Simple Pendulum

A point mass attached to a massless, inextensible string is called a simple pendulum as in Fig.2.2. Let us
find out various physical parameters for a simple pendulum.

mg sin a mg cos u
mg

Fig. 2.2

Let a particle of mass m, at point P, is under the action of various forces:

(1) The weight mg of the bob acting vertically downward
(ii) Tension T', in the string along PA.

From the diagram, it can be seen that the tension is opposed by the radial component of weight,
mg cosa, therefore, the force T-mg cosa provides centripetal force for circular arc and the
tangential component mg sina tends to bring the bob back to its initial position 'o'. Here, mg sina, is
known as restoring force and is responsible for performing oscillations of the particle. So,
F = -mg sina

The negative sign indicates that the acceleration and the displacement are oppositely directed. If be
the acceleration at any time t, in the direction of increasing x, then the force must be;
d²x .

F=m SO
dt2:
d²x
m = -mg sina
dt²
d²x
dt²g sina
For the condition to perform S.H.M, the angle x should be small, so the distance x (arc) can be written
as;

x = la, (where, I is the radius of the circular path, i.e., length of the thread)
On differentiating two times, it gives;
d²x d²a
=

=-ga

-α

Considering, w², we have; =

37
Physics for Engineers

d²a+w²α = 0
dt²
(14).

The equation (14), is a second order differential equation and is the equation of the motion of simple
pendulum, with solution as;
a = ao sin(wt + 8)
Here, 8 is the initial phase and do is the angular displacement amplitude.
The time period for the simple pendulum will be written as;
2π
1 (15)
T = = 2₁
√8

The time period of a simple pendulum is independent of mass of the bob.

2.4.2 Compound Pendulum
An object of laminar shape, executing simple harmonic motion is called a compound pendulum. In Fig.
2.3, let 'm' is the mass of the compound pendulum and suppose it is making small oscillations under the
influence of gravity, about an axis through a point O for considering the motion as S.H.M. Let G be the
centre of gravity of the compound pendulum and 1 be the distance OG.

Displaced Position

mg

Mean Position

Fig. 2,3

The pendulum is displaced from its mean position so that OG makes a small angle 0 with vertical line
OA. In the displaced position, the weight mg of the pendulum, acting vertically downwards produces a
torque which tends to bring the pendulum to its initial position and is given by;
T = mg x GA = mgl sine
As we know the torque can also be written as
T= -la
d²0
Where I is the moment of inertia of the pendulum about O and a =
dt² is the angular acceleration.
So, we have;

mgl sin0 = -1
d²0
I
+ mgl sine = 0
dt²
Here 0 is small for obvious reason, So, sin0 = 0. Thus,

38
Wave and Oscillations

d²0
I+mgl 0 = 0
dt²
d²e mgl
dt (16)
mgl
Considering, w² =
I equation (16) can be written as
d²a

dt² +w²α = 0 which is again a standard equation of S.H.M., with the time period
2πt
T=
@

I
T = 2π
mgl

If K is the radius of gyration of the pendulum about a parallel axis through G then using, parallel axis
theorem, the moment of inertia is written as;
I = mk² + ml²
Thus;

K² + 1²
T = 2π

T = 2π
(17)
g

Now if we compare equations (15) and (17), we see that both the equations are similar, if we put +1
= L, i.e. the formula for the time period for a compound pendulum, takes the form as;

T = 2₁
√ (18)

Here, L = +1 is the equivalent length of the compound pendulum. It means, if we are able to find
the equivalent length.L', of an oscillating compound pendulum, then the compound pendulum can be
considered as a simple pendulum with length of the thread as The equation (18), is a very important
equation to find the earth's gravitational acceleration, g, at any place without using sophisticated
instrumentation.

2.5 Applications of Simple Harmonic Oscillations

As discussed above, besides finding acceleration due to gravity, there are enormous practical examples
that can be considered as the direct applications of simple harmonic motion, but due to limitations
our topics of concern. Here we will discuss a few ideal cases, where no damped or forced oscillations
are involved.

2.5.1 Oscillations of L-C circuit

If a charged capacitor is attached to an inductor, the electrical energy stored in the capacitor, is
converted into the magnetic energy of the inductor and again the magnetic energy converted back into
the electrical energy of the capacitor due to the oscillations of the charge of the capacitor in the circuit.
This conversion goes on for infinite time if there is no dissipation of energy during this process.
Practically it is not possible, so this may be treated as an application of an ideal case of simple harmonic
oscillation.

39
Physics for Engineers

Suppose a charged capacitor C, is connected with an inductor L., Fig. 2.4. Let Go is the total charge.
stored in the capacitor of capacitance 'C', then the potential difference between the plates of the
90
capacitor will be
C

00000000
с

Fig. 2.4.
Now if the circuit is closed, the charge from positive plate of the capacitor starts flowing towards the
negative plate of the capacitor, through the inductor 'L'. Let 'q' be the instantaneous charge and 'i' is the
instantaneous current in the circuit, then the e.m.f. induced between the ends of the inductor will be
di
L As there is no external source, then in a close circuit, the total potential will be zero i.e.
di
9
+L = 0, or
C dt

9+ L d²q = 0, or
dt²

= 0, or

d²q
dt²
+ w²q = 0 (19)

The equation (19) is a standard differential equation of simple harmonic motion. Here, is the VLC

angular frequency of the oscillations and charge 'q', is the physical variable of the motion, having.
amplitude as go. The frequency is given as,
V = i.e.

V= 2πVLC
And the instantaneous charge is calculated by the solution of the equation (19), as;
9 90 sin(wt + $)
And the instantaneous current will be;
dq
i= =
dt
wqo cos(wt + p)
The total energy in the circuit either electrical or magnetic will be
CV²=219
C (Purely electrical)
CV² = Li (Purely magnetic),
Or

2 C
+Li² (Instantaneous energy, electrical and magnetic)

2.6 Wave Motion

When a particle in a material medium executes S.H.M. then due to the inter molecular force the
neighbouring particles of the medium, also start oscillating simple harmonically, either in the direction
of motion of the particle (longitudinally) or in the perpendicular direction of the motion of the source
particle (transversely) or in both the directions. It means the energy of the oscillating particle gets
40
Wave and Oscillations

transferred to its neighbouring particle without the actual movement of the particle of the medium.
This process of movement of the energy is termed as wave motion and this transfer/movement of
energy/disturbance; in the medium is called a wave. It may be progressing through the medium, called
progressive wave or redistributed among the particle in the still medium, called as standing wave. The
origin of energy transfer in the medium is the inter-molecular force between the particles of the
medium (in case of a mechanical wave). The mechanism of propagation of an electromagnetic wave is
different from the mechanical wave.

2.7 Wave Equation

As the wave motion through the medium is associated with the oscillation of the particle at the source
which is oscillating simple harmonically or otherwise, the wave equation can be derived with the help of
the equation of simple harmonic motion of the source particle. As the motion of the particle at the
source is governed by an oscillating external force, in the same manner the wave motion is governed by
the oscillation of the particle at the source. It can be seen that the particle at the source oscillates with
the frequency of governing force. Similarly, the frequency of the wave is also equal to the frequency of
the particle at the source and again the wave motion is simple harmonic if the particle at the source is
oscillating simple harmonically.
Now, let us write the equation of simple harmonic oscillations, performed by the particle as;
y = A sin(wt + 8)
Here y is the instantaneous displacement of the particle from the mean position, oscillating simple
harmonically along y-axis. A is the displacement amplitude, w and 8 are the frequency and initial phase
of the particle, respectively. Now starting the motion with initial phase as zero, the displacement of the
particle at x = 0, will be;
y = A sinot
So, the displacement of the particle at position x from the mean position and at time 't', will be;

y = Asin w (t-) = A sin (wt - ) (20)

The equation (20) may be called as an equation of a wave which is associated with the displacement of
the particle at the source. Here v is the velocity of the wave and x is the displacement of the wave from
the origin and is the phase w.r. t., the origin. From here it can also be seen that after a certain
V

distance say X, the phase will repeat itself after one or more than one time periods. Then the equation
(20) can be written as;

y = A sin w (t) = A sin c(t - ***)

dy

dt
= Awcos w(t) = Awcos w(t - ***)
From here we can write

w(t)= w(t***) +2nr

Or X= 2nn

For two consecutive point of same phase, n = 1, so

2πν
X == VT (21)
W

Equation (21) gives the distance travelled by the wave in a complete time period T. This length is called
wavelength and denoted by A. The equation can be re-written in its well-known form, i.e.
V = VA (22)

The other forms of equations of wave are

41
Physics for Engineers

y = A sin(wt-w ⇒y= A sin(wt - kx),

2TV 2πT
Where, k = is called wave number.
V λ

Also, another form of equation is;

y = A sin 2π (-),

2.8 Particle Velocity and Wave Velocity

The particle velocity of the particle, executing S.H.M at the source, is given by
dy
dt
= Awcosw (t-) (23)

Now, differentiating (23) w.r.t. x, we have

dy Aw

dx
= -
cos w(t-) (24)

From equations (23) and (24), the particle velocity u, can be written as
dy dy
(25)
u = =
dt Vax (Ignoring -ve sign)

Equation (25) relates the particle velocity to the velocity of the wave associated with the particle,
executing S.H.M. at the source.

2.9 General Form of Equation of Wave

Differentiating equations (23) w.r.t. t and (24) w.r.t. x, respectively, we get
d²y = Aw²sin w(t-) (26)

d²y Aw²
dx²=v2 sin w(t (27)

From equation (26) and (27) we can write;

d²y 1 d²y
= (28)
dx² v2 dt²

This is called general wave equation in differential form.

2.10 Superposition Principle for Waves

2.10.1 Waves in Same Direction (Progressive Wave)
"When two or more than two waves superimpose at a point in the medium, the instantaneou
amplitude of the resultant waves is given by the vector sum of all the instantaneous amplitudes of all
the waves". This is called superposition principle of waves. Hence, if there are 'n' number of waves
having amplitudes y₁, y2, y3;.......yn, then;
y = y₁ + y2 + y3 + ..............Yn
Here, y is the instantaneous amplitude of resultant wave due to the superposition of the n waves.
For simplicity let us take the case of two waves only. Let
Y₁ A₁ sin(wt + kx) and
Y2 A2 sin(wt + kx + Ø),
According to the principle of superposition, the resultant will be;
y = A₁ sin(wt + kx) + A₂ sin(wt + kx + Ø) (29)
On solving equation (29) we have;
y= A sin(wt + kx + 8) (30)
Where A is the amplitude of the resultant wave and 8 is the phase of the resultant wave, given as;
y =√A+ A+2A₁ A₂ cos

42
Wave and Oscillations

and
A₂ sind
tan 8 =
A₁ + A₂ cos

From equation (30), it is clear that the resultant of the superposition of two simple harmonic waves
travelling in the same direction will again be simple harmonic of same frequency as that of the source.
waves with some phase angle with the source.

2.10.2 Waves in Opposite Direction (Standing Waves)

Let us take two simple harmonic waves travelling in opposite direction to each other. i.e.
Y₁ A₁ sin(wt + kx)
Y2 A₂ sin(wt - kx + Ø)
Using superposition principle, the resultant amplitude will be given as;
y = A sin(wt + kx) + A sin(wt - kx)
Here, phase difference is taken as zero, and the amplitude is taken same as a special case.
On simplification we have,
y = (2Acos kx) sin wot (31)

The equation (31) is the equation of standing wave, in which the amplitude i.e., 2Acos kx, of resultant
waves, also varies sinusoidally. The points of maximum amplitude are called antinode and the points of.
minimum amplitude are termed as nodes.

2.11 Category of waves

Fundamentally, waves can be divided into two categories. One, which needs a material medium, called
mechanical waves and the other which do not need any material medium for their propagation, are
called electromagnetic waves.

2.12 Electromagnetic Field Theory

Introduction

A static charge produces static electric field around it and the theory is called electrostatic field theory.
The theory behind uniformly moving charge is called magnetostatic field theory. But if the charge is
.
accelerating or oscillating, the theory, which explain this phenomenon, is termed as electromagnetic
field theory. An accelerating or oscillating charge produces oscillating electric field and the oscillating
electric field produces, oscillating magnetic field. We have the equation of oscillating electric field as;

Ey Ey, sin(wt + kx) (32).

And the equation of corresponding magnetic field will be

B₂= B₂, sin(wt + kx) (33)

Later in this chapter, it will be proved that the in case of an electromagnetic wave, the oscillations of
electric and magnetic field vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to
the propagation of the wave.

Maxwell derived and developed the fundamental equations of electromagnetic field theory and
ultimately the theory of electromagnetic waves. He also predicted that light is an electromagnetic wave
having electric and magnetic field vectors, oscillating perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular
to the direction of propagation of electromagnetic energy.

43
Physics for Engineers

2.13 Maxwell's Equations-

A set of four equations of electromagnetism (with some modifications), are called the Maxwell's
equations of electromagnetic field theory. Maxwell rigorously analysed four fundamental equations of
electromagnetism, i.e., of electric field, magnetic field and electromagnetic induction and came to the
conclusion that these equations are interlinked although, they are written separately for electrostatics,
magnetostatics or electromagnetic induction. After doing a lot of mathematical operations on these
equations, he also derived nearly all mathematical formulations for electromagnetic field theory. Later,
this theory led to the theory of electromagnetic waves. Heinrich Hertz was the first scientist who had
successfully generated the electromagnetic waves.
After doing mathematical operations on the four fundamental equations of electrostatics, magnetism
and electromagnetism, Maxwell found very interesting physical interpretation of these equations in
integral as well as in the differential form. He concluded that these equations are not ideal rather they
are interlinked to each other and lead to the fundamental foundation of the electromagnetic wave
theory.

These four equations of electromagnetism can be converted into two, using the concept of
electromagnetic potential. In relativistic physics and using the concept of electromagnetic four-vector
potential, there comes out to be only one equation of electromagnetism. Later, this will be explained in
detail, in the chapter of "special theory of relativity", under the topic of 'invariance of Maxwell's
equations under Lorentz's Transformation'.

2.13.1 Modifications of the Equations of Electromagnetism

Here are the four equations of electromagnetism as;
(1) E. ds = 9 Gauss's Law of Electrostatics
Eo

(ii) B. ds = 0 Gauss's Law of Magnetostatics

(iii) = _B at
Faraday's Law of electromagnetic Induction

(iv) B. dl= Ho I Ampere's Circuital Law

Initially, Maxwell checked the consistency of each equation in every situation and eventually found that
the Ampere's circuital law to be inconsistent with an AC circuit, if a capacitor is connected into an AC
circuit. Then, he modified the equation, made it consistent and put all the four equations of
electromagnetism, under one umbrella. All together they are called Maxwell's equations of
electromagnetism.

2.14 Inconsistency of Ampere's Circuital Law - Maxwell's Displacement Current

According to the Ampere's circuital law, the line integral of the magnetic induction B around any closed
path around a current carrying conductor is po times the current flowing through the conductor and
written as;

B. dl= Hol (34)

44
Wave and Oscillations

SAG

Fig.2.5
As there is no current flowing between the plates of the capacitor, so in the loop over the free space
between the plates of the capacitor, the Ampere's law gives;
B. dl Ho Ic=0 (35)
So, from (35), it is clear that Ampere's circuital law is not consistent for a circuit in which a capacitor is
maintained with alternating electric field, as there is not current flowing in the free space between the
plates of the capacitor, Fig. 2.5. To remove this inconsistency, the concept of Maxwell's displacement
current was introduced. The expression for displacement current can be derived as follows;
Let an electric circuit contains a capacitor, connected to an AC source. For any instantaneous value of
surface charge density o on the plates, the electric field between the plates is given by;
σ
E = where o =
€0'

q is the instantaneous charge and A is the area of the plates and Eo is the permittivity of the free space
between the plates.
q
Thus, E =
€0A
As the capacitor is connected to an AC source, the time variation of the electric field between the plates
is given by;
JE 1 q
== Or
at EoA at
JE
əq
= EoA (36)
at at
The equation (36), has Ampere as the unit on both the sides, so it may be taken as some sort of current,
called Maxwell's displacement current.
On rearranging, equation (36) we have;
de E ƏD
89 - A = A = la, (where D = EoE is electric displacement vector). (37)
at ət

Here, la may be called as Maxwell's displacement current.

The equation (37) is the expression for Maxwell's Displacement current. As D = EE is known as electric
displacement vector and this current is proportional to time rate of electric displacement vector, that's
why it is called Maxwell's displacement current.
For the consistency of Ampere's circuital law for direct as well as AC circuit, Maxwell modified, the
equation (34) as;
B. dl Ho (Ic+ ld) (38)
Or

H. dl= (Ic + la)

Or

H. dl= Ic + la = c + Ja). ds (39)

The equation (38) or (39), is called modified Ampere's circuital law which is consistent for DC and AC
circuits.

45
Physics for Engineers

*Maxwell's displacement current is different from the conventional current as there is no flow of charge
in this case. Now the question that arises is why this is called a current? The explanation to this is that
the origin of any kind of magnetic field is current. So, if there is an alternating magnetic field in the free
space between the plates of the capacitor, it means that there should be some sort of current. Actually,
the flow of charge per unit time is not the proper definition of the current. This can be used to measure
the amount of the conduction current but is not the basic definition of current. Whenever charge flow
in the conductors, there is a magnetic field around the conductor which means, even in the case of the
conduction current, magnetic field always persist. So, existence of alternating magnetic field in the free
space between the two plates of conductor, there is always a Maxwell displacement current, whether it
is a capacitor or an electric dipole. *

2.15 Maxwell's Equations of Electromagnetism - Foundation of Electromagnetic Waves

Four equations of electrostatics, magnetism, electromagnetic induction with modified Ampere's
circuital law, are termed as the Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism.
9
(1) E. ds = Gauss's Law of Electrostatics
Eo

(ii) B. ds = 0. Gauss's Law of Magnetostatics

(= E. dl=0в at
Faraday's Law of electromagnetic Induction
(iv) H. dl= I + la = $(J+Ja). ds Modified Ampere's Circuital Law

These equations are called Maxwell's equations of electromagnetic field in integral from.
Maxwell performed rigorous mathematical operations on these equations and converted these
equations into differential form. This helped in interpreting the physical significance of the Maxwell's
equations in a very different and an exhaustive manner. He reached on the conclusion that these
equations cannot be treated as separated from each other but are very well connected to each other. In
the combined form, the physical significance of these equations also gives the foundation of other
important physical quantity called as electromagnetic waves.

To convert these equations in differential form, á mathematical operator called Del (V) is very much
needed. Without this operator it is impossible to convert integral form into differential form. So let us
have a brief description and discussion about this operator after which it will be very easy to convert the
integral form of four equations of electromagnetism into differential form. The physical interpretation
of the equations will reveal the hidden concepts of electromagnetic waves in it and finally the
foundation for the fundamental equations of electromagnetic waves could be understood.
2.16 Del Operator
The operator, del (or nabla) 'V' is a mathematical operator, defined as (in rectangular coordinates)
v = (1+₁+k²₂)
ду

Note: Sometimes the 'del operator is represented with a vector sign, but it should be kept in mind
that 'del is not a vector quantity; it is an operator which operates in a way similar to a vector.
Some of the operations of V== (₁ + 1²+k²
ду
) are defined as follows:

46
Wave and Oscillations

2.16.1 Scalar Multiplication of V: Gradient of a Vector

The gradient of a scalar point function f(x, y, z), is represented by Vf or grad(f) and can be obtained by
operating the del operator'V' on the function f. Thus, the gradient of f is given by,
Vf= = (2 & + 2 9 + 2₂ 2 ) ² = (01 8 + 9 +
f=
(9)

Therefore, gradient of a scalar function is a quantity whose x, y and z components are respectively the
partial derivatives of f with respect to x, y and z.
2.16.2 Physical Interpretation of Gradient: If f(x, y, z) is a scalar function at a point (x, y, z)then on
changing the x, y and z coordinates by dx, dy, dz the differential change in the scalar function f can be
written as,
af af Əf
df = dx + dy + dz = Vf. dr
��
х ду дz

Where, df = dxx + dyý + dz2

So, we can write,
df=|vf|dr|cose
Where is the angle between dr and Vf.
From the above equations, we can see that for a fixed value of dr (magnitude of dr), df will be
maximum when cos 0 = 1, i.ç., when dr is in the direction of Vf. Therefore, df is maximum in the
direction Vf, so we can say that, the gradient Vf of a scalar function f, points in the direction of
maximum increase of the function. Further if (df)max is the timum change in the function for a
fixed value of dr, we can write,
(df)max |Vf||dr| = |vf|dr
Thus, the magnitude of gradient of f is given by,
|

(df)max
(40)
=
|
vf

dr

The gradient of a scalar field thus is a vector field which points in the direction of the greatest increase
of the scalar field, and whose magnitude is equal to the greatest rate of change of the function with
distance.

The gradient can also be used to measure how a scalar field changes in other direction, rather than just
the direction of greatest change, by taking its dot product with the unit vector along that direction.
Another important property of gradient of a function'f is that it is normal to the surface over which fis
constant.

Ho
0.1

0.08

0.06

H
0.04

0.02

Fig. 2.6
Illustration: Consider that the temperature in a room at different points (x, y, z) of the room is given
by (x, y, z). The gradient at each point in the room will show the direction in which the temperature
changes most quickly. The magnitude of the gradient determines that how fast the temperature changes
47
Physics for Engineers

in that direction. Further consider a hill whose height at a point (x, y) is H(x, y). Then, the gradient of H
at a point is a vector pointing in the direction of the steepest slope at that point (as shown in Fig. 2.6).
The steepness of the slope at that point is given by the magnitude of the gradient of H.

2.16.3 Scalar Product of V: Divergence

The divergence of a vector point function f(x, y, z)= fx + fyŷ + f₂2 {wherefx, fy and fy are
respectively the x, y and z components of the vector field f at a point having coordinates x, y, z is
represented by divor V.I and can be obtained by operating the del operator (V) on the vector field
through dot product. Thus, the divergence of the vector field f is given by,
afx afy afz
v.f=
=(8+; 29+ + +
əx ду дz
The divergence of a vector field thus is a scalar quantity.

→
&

D
it
dx

Fig. 2.7

2.16.4 Physical Interpretation of Divergence

Consider an infinitesimal volume with sides dx, dy and dz as shown in Fig. 2.7. If a vector field is
f(x, y, z) = fx + fyŷ + f₂2 in the middle of the volume at the point O, having coordinates (x, y, z),
then the x-component of f at the middle of the face ABCD, can be of x-component of f, same over the
face thus, the flux of the field f through the face ABCD can be written as (fx-1fxdx) dxdz {the y
and z component of f do not contribute anything to the flux since these components are perpendicular
to the normal to the surface }. Similarly, the x-component of f at the face EFGH can be written as
+10 dx and the flux through the face EFGH can be written as (+10x dx) dydz. Therefore, the
2 дх
2

net amount of flux of the field that is diverging from the face EFGH, can be written as , (² +
10x dx ) dydz - (fx-10x dx) dxdz = xdxdydz. Similarly, the flux diverging from the faces ABFE
ofy afz
and BCGF, can be written as dxdydz and dxdydz, respectively. Thus, the total flux diverging.
ду дz

from the infinitesimal volume is given by, (x + y + 3) dxdydz. The amount of flux diverging
afx
through an infinitesimal volume per unit of its volume is given by ofy +O,
afz which, as we know, is
+
əx ду əz'

equal to the divergence of the field. We can now define the divergence of a vector field as the net
amount of flux of the field diverging through an infinitesimal volume per unit of its volume or we can
say that the divergence basically represents the flux generation per unit volume at each point of the
48
Wave and Oscillations

field. If'S is the surface that bounds a volume 'V' we can alternatively write the divergence of a vector
field fas,

V.F = V→0.ds (41)

The divergence of a vector field at a point tells that how much the vector field diverges or spreads out
from that point. The point from where the field lines diverge, can be called a source of the field while
the point where the field lines converge can be called a sink of the field, so a point of positive
divergence is a source and a point of negative divergence is a sink. If the divergence of a vector field is
non-zero, then there must be a source or sink of the field:

2.16.5 Solenoidal Vector Fields

The vector fields that have zero divergence everywhere are called solenoidal or divergence-less vector
fields.

2.16.6 Gauss' Divergence Theorem

From the above discussion, we have clearly understood that the amount of flux diverging through an
infinitesimal volume per unit of its volume is also called divergence of the field and if S is the surface
that bounds a volume 'V' we can also write the divergence of a vector field A as,
A.dS
V.A V 0
V

Thus, we can write,

A. ds = f(V.A) dv (42)

In other words, the total inward or outward flux of a vector point function through a closed surface is
equal to the divergence of the vector point function, from the volume enclosed by that surface. The
equation (42) is known as Gauss' divergence theorem of the vector fields. In simple way it is used to
convert any surface integral into volume integral enclosed by the surface.

2.16.7 Vector Product of V: Curl

The curl of a vector point function f(x, y, z)=fxx + fyŷ + f₂2 (where fx, fyand f,respectively are the x,
y and z components of the vector field f at a point having coordinates x,y,z) is represented by Vxf
and can be obtained by operating the del operator (V) on the vector field through cross product. Thus,
the curl of f is given by,
▼ × ³ = ( 8 + ₂ŷ + — ²) × ²
|8 ŷ 2
•

მამ ə

= ax ду дz
=x (012₂ - 01x) +9 (0fx - 02) + 2 (0 - 0)
=

ду
(43)

fx fy fz
Therefore, the curl of a vector field is a vector quantity.

49
Physics for Engineers.

<ax (y+dy

(
)
→+
dxx
ay

dx

ax y

Fig. 2.8 Fig. 2.9

2.16.8 Physical Interpretation of Curl

To see, what the curl of a vector means, consider a rectangular element of length dx and width dy in
the region of a vector field a as shown in Fig. 2.8. We can write the x-components of the field a at the
bottom and at the top of the element as,
dax
ax(y) and ax(y + dy)= ax(y) + dy.
ду

Similarly, we can write; the y-components of the field a at the left and right side of the element as,
day
ay(x) and ay(x + dx) = ay(x)+ dx.
Əx

Now working round the clockwise sense, the circulation of the vector around the element can be

written as ax(y)dx + ay(x + dx) - ax(y + dy)dx - ay(x)dy, where the minus signs in the last two
terms arise because there the path is opposite to the direction of the field.

дау
The circulation of the field a around the element can be written as, ax(y)dx+{ay(x) + ay dx} dyax

{ax(y)+ ax dy} dx - ay(x)dy

дау
Or, ay dxdy - axdydx=(x-x) dxdy =(V x a).ds (Where ds = dx dy 2).
The curl of a vector field is thus a measure of the circulation of the vector field per unit area, i.e. also
called vertically of the field.
Now the circulation of the vector field around any closed curve can be written as
f, a. di = f,dc= f(V x a).dš
If the integral of a vector field around a closed loop is not zero, then it implies that there is some
circulation of the vector field around the loop i.e., a non-zero curl implies that there is a circulation of
the vector field. However, if the curl of the vector is zero everywhere, then there cannot be any
circulation of the vector field, anywhere in space. Hence, the name 'curl is given for V x a.
The curl of a vector field tells us about the circulation of rotation per unit area the field has at any
point.

The magnitude of the curl tells us how much rotation there is and its direction tells us, by the right
hand rule (four fingers of the right hand are curled in the direction of the vector field, then the thumb

50
Wave and Oscillations

points in the direction of the rotation) that about which axis the field is rotating. That is why; curl of a
vector field is also called rot (short for rotor).
Illustration: Consider a vector a vector field f= y - xŷ. This vector field is shown in Fig. 2.9.
From Figure, it can be seen that f is circulating around the point O. Using the right hand rule, we
expect the curl to be into the page or in the negative z-direction.
The curl of fis given by
V x 7= (2x + 2₂ 9 + 0₂ 2) × Î
18 ŷ 2

a a Ә

əx ду дz
= 2 (-³x - y) = - 22
=

��
х

X 0

It, indeed is in the negative z-direction, as expected. In this case, the curl is actually a constant,
irrespective of position. The amount of rotation in the above vector field is the same at any point (x, y).

2.16.9 Irrotational Vector Fields: The vector fields which have zero curl everywhere are called
irrotational or curl-less vector fields.

2.16.10 Stoke's Theorem

For any vector field A, we can write as,

(V x A).dS = A. di (44)
This equation is called Stokes' theorem.

2.17 Equation of Continuity - Conservation of Charge

The flow of conduction current in a circuit can be written as
əq
I=-
at
= -Jp dv (45)

We also have;
I = fJ. ds (46)
From (45) and (46), we have;

fJ. ds = pdv

JJ. ds = dv
Using Gauss's Div. Theorem
SV.J dv=-dv

(V.J+)dv = 0
As the integral is arbitrary, so the integrand vanishes to zero. i.e.
V.J+ P =0 (47)

This equation is called the equation of continuity.

2.17.1 Physical Interpretation of Equation of Continuity

The equation (47) shows that if the divergence of conduction current density is zero, i.e., V. J = 0 then
volume charge density p is constant; it means charge is static charge is conserved. If time rate of
change of charge density is zero, then the conduction current density will not be originated from any
51
Physics for Engineers

source. It will flow in a loop like magnetic field lines of force. It means the equation of continuity tell
whether the circuit is maintained by AC or DC.

2.18 Maxwell's Equations in Integral Form

The set of four equations of electromagnetism are known: Maxwell's equations in integral form.
(1) E. ds = Gauss's Law of Electrostatics
Eo

(ii) B. ds = 0
Gauss's Law of Magnetostatics
(

dl

Faraday's Law of EM Induction

E.
)

iii
dt

(iv) H. dl = 1 + la= $(J+Ja). ds. Modified Ampere's Circuital Law

2.18.1 Physical Significance

The physical significance of these is given as;
(1) This equation is Gauss's law in electrostatics which states that, the total outward electric flux over
any closed surface is equal to total charge enclosed within volume surrounded by the surface.
(ii) The total outward flux of magnetic flux B through any closed surface 'S' is equal to zero i.e.,
monopole does not exist.

(ui) If an electric circuit is placed in a magnetic field and the magnetic flux close to a circuit changes, an
electromotive force (e.m.f) is induced in the circuit. The magnitude of which is proportional to the rate
of change of flux and the direction of the induced e.m.f is given by Lenz's law which states that "the
direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that the magnetic flux associated with the current generated by it
opposes the original change of flux causing e.m.f.
(iv)This equation has been derived from ampere's law in circuital form for a magnetic field
accompanying an electric current. This law states that the line integral of magnetic field around a closed
path is equal to the total current crossing any surface bounded by the line integral path.
Most of these equations are more or less as it is, as given by several researchers and does not lead to any
specific correlations between them. But when Maxwell converted these equations into differential form,
a strong inter-connectivity of these equations come into picture. He also showed that these equations,
not only are coupled to each other but are the basic equations of electromagnetic field theory. These
equations can then be used further to derive the equations of electromagnetic waves.
2.18.2 Conversion of Maxwell's equations - Integral Form into Differential Form
1. Conversion of Gauss law of electrostatics
Here we have, E. ds = 9
€0

If p is the charge density, then p dV is the charge in volume element dV which contributes p dv to
€0
the surface integral. If the surface 's' encloses a volume V then

fed
E. ds = p dv

But if the surface is bounded volume V of a dielectric, then the total charge must include both the free
and polarisation charges. Thus, the total charge density at a point in a small volume dV, should be
(p+ p') where p' is polarisation charge density and p is free charge density. Thus, the above equation
can be expressed as
1

E. ds == f(p + p') av
52
Wave and Oscillations

If P is polarisation i.e., electric dipole moment per unit volume then div P or VP is the amount of
polarised charge in a unit volume. As the polarised charge is reverse in nature with respect to real
charge, thus
p' = -V.P=-div P
1
E. dS=
€0
f(
(p - div P) dv

E. ds = pdv-div P dv
Applying Gauss Divergence Theorem to change surface integral to volume integral, we get
E.ds =
=fdiv (E)dv=pdv-fdiv
div P dv
div(eoE+P)dV= p dv

The quantity, EoE+ P = D, called electric displacement vector,

$ div D dV=
= $pa dv

di
div(Dp)dV0

Since the equation is true for arbitrary volume, the integrand must vanish,
Thus div(D-p)=0
div D = P.
V.D = P (48)
Now we have, D = EE where is the permittivity of the dielectric medium.
In free space, D= EoE, Eo is the permittivity of free space.
Thus,
P.
V.E= (49)

Equations (48) or (49) is first equation in differential form.

2. Conversion of Gauss law of Magnetostatics

Since the magnetic lines of force are either closed or go off to infinity, the number of magnetic lines of
force entering any arbitrary close surface is exactly the same as leaving it. This means the total outward
flux of magnetic induction B through any closed surface 's' is equal to zero i.e.
B. dS=0

Transforming the surface integral into volume integral, using Gauss divergence theorem, we get
V. B dV=0
The integrand should vanish for the surface boundary as the volume is arbitrary i.e.
div B = 0

or

V.B = 0 (50)
This is differential form of second equation.

3. Conversion of Faradays law of electromagnetic induction and Lenz law

We know according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, the induced e.m.f is given by;
JOB
}=-₁
dt'

53
Physics for Engineers.

i.e., time rate of change of magnetic flux produces an induced e.m.f. and it is produced to oppose this
change. Also, the induced e.m.f. is equal to the work done per unit charge and can be written as the line
integral of the induced electric field E around the circuit i.e.
e = $E.dl
And the rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit is equal to
афв (a (B. ds)
=

dt at

Where the integral is taken over any area 's' bounded by the circuit. Since the surface ds does not
change its shape or position with time, we can write the above equation as:
ав
f. E. dl
dl= .ds

The total time derivative has been changed to partial derivative as we are only concerned with th
changes in the field B with time at a fixed position of the elemental area. it signifies that "th
electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the time derivative of the magnetic displacemen
through any surface bounded by the path.
Using Stokes theorem, the line integral can be transformed into the surface integral i.e.
E. dl= f curl E. dS = -6. ds
Or f(curl E + ). ds = 0
This equation must hold for any arbitrary surface in the field, thus the integrand should'vanish i.e.
ƏB
curl E + =0
at

Or
OB
VXE=
at (51)
This is called differential form of Maxwell third equation.

4. Conversion of Ampere's Circuital Law

Ampere's law states that the line integral of magnetic field intensity around a closed path is equal to th
total current crossing any surface bounded by the line integral path i.e.
fH.
H. dl = I=
=$1.as
J.

Now changing the line integral into the surface integral by the use of Stoke's theorem,
H. dl curl H. ds = J. ds Or

$(V x H-J). ds = 0
For an arbitrary surface, the integrand should vanish, thus
VxH-J=0, Or
V x H = J, Or

curl H = J (52)
This is the differential form of Ampere's law for steady current only.

2.18.2.1 Consistency of Ampere's Law for Time Varying Fields on the basis of Maxwell's
equations

This is another way to check the consistency of Ampere's law for DC and AC fields. As we can see
from the equation of continuity, the divergence of current density can reveal whether the field is DC or
AC. So, taking the divergence of equation (23), we have;

54
Wave and Oscillations

V. (V x H) = V.J
(V.V) H-V(V.H) = V.J, Or
0 = V.J

It means the divergence of current density is zero.

According to the equation of continuity;
ap
V.J+ = 0 (53)
at

If V.J = 0, then p is constant i.e., volume charge density is not function of time. This shows that the
Ampere's circuital is true only for the circuits in which charge does not change with time i.e., it is true
for direct fields only.
To make it consistent for a circuit having connected a capacitor or an electric dipole maintained by
alternating electric filed, Maxwell added some quantity in the right-hand side of the equation (52) let it
be J'. So, the Ampere's equation is modified as;
curl H = J + J' (54)
As, the addition is in current density so J'is also some kind of current density. Now the divergence of
equation (54) gives as;
V. (curl H) = V. (J + J')
Or

V.J+V.J' = 0 (55)
Using equation (53) and (55);
ap
V.J' = (56)
at

From (48) and (56);

a(V.D)
V.J' = at

Or
ƏD
V.J' = V.
at

Or
ƏD
J' = or
at
ƏD
I'= A at (57)

As the current given by the equation (57), is directly proportional to the time rate of change of electric
displacement vector D, this may be called as displacement current or Maxwell's displacement current.
In space, the magnitude of Maxwell's displacement current can be calculated as;
JE

La = AEo at

Where A is the area, Eo is the permittivity of free space where the electric field is changing with time.
So, the differential form of modified Ampere's law can be written as the Maxwell's fourth equation of
electromagnetic wave in differential form. That is;
ƏD
VxH=J+
at

VxH = J+J' (58)

Here, it is very important to note that the equation (58) is true for a DC circuit as well as AC circuit
having a capacitor like component or an electric dipole operated by an alternating electric field (Fig.2.5).
In the portion of the circuit containing conducting wires only, i.e., in the portion of circuit containing
conduction current, only the conduction current density comes into picture and the displacement
current density will be zero. But in the portion of the circuit where there is free space, for example the

55
Physics for Engineers.

space between the plates of a capacitor or space between the two poles of an electric dipole operated b
alternating electric field, only the displacement current density will come into picture and at that plac
the conduction current density will be zero. From this, it may be concluded that in a circuit shown in
Fig. 2.5, the magnitude of conduction current and Maxwell current should be equal as it may be
considered that the current in whole of the circuit remains the same. In the wires, it is conduction
current Ic but in the free space it is Maxwell displacement current Id.
2.18.3 Physical Significance of Maxwell Equations: Differential Form

Maxwell equations in differential form are given as;

V.E= or V. D = p
€0

V.B=0
(ii) (59)
Әв ән
VXE= Ho (iii)
at at
JE ƏD
V x H = J + €0= =+ (iv)
at

Physical Significance

1. The divergence of electric displacement vector gives the volume charge density. If it is positive than
the position of charge is the origin of source of the electric field, if it is negative, the electric field is
sinking at the position of charge and if it is zero then the electric field entering from one side is the
same as coming out from the other side. But if the value of charge divergence is oscillating between a
maximum and minimum value then the charge density is changing with time i.e., there is oscillating
electric field at that point.
2. The divergence of magnetic field at any point is always zero. This verifies the concept that monopole
does not exist.
3. This equation shows that curling effect of electric field give us the changing magnetic field with time
and also perpendicular to the electric field. This also shows that space varying electric field gives time
varying magnetic field.

4. This equation is one of the most important contributions of Maxwell. If the Ampere's law was not
modified by Maxwell, the equation 59(iv) shows that space varying magnetic field gives conduction
current density and there is no time varying electric field. After the introduction of displacement
current, it is possible that space varying magnetic field can generate time varying electric field in the free
space. And that is the basic concept of electromagnetic waves.
The physical significance of the equation 59(iii) and 59(iv) is the foundation for the development of the
theory of electromagnetic waves. As 59(iii) and 59(iv) equations show vice a versa effects of varying
electric and magnetic fields i.e., if magnetic field vary at any point in space, it propagates varying electric
field in the space around it and if electric field vary with time at any point, the varying magnetic field
propagates in the space around it. It means that propagation of varying electric and magnetic field is
due to the time variation of magnetic and electric field respectively. As the propagation of
electromagnetic wave in any medium is the propagation of varying electric and magnetic in the

medium; so we can conclude that these four equations of Maxwell are the fundamental equations which
can be used for further derivation of equations of electromagnetic waves in different media. Now let us
derive the equations of plane electromagnetic waves in various media.

56
Wave and Oscillations

2.19 Work done by the electromagnetic field

The propagation of electromagnetic waves i.e., oscillating electric and magnetic fields, in free space or in
any medium is possible on account of the energy carried by with the wave. This is generated due to the
work done by the electromagnetic field.

2.19.1 Energy of Electromagnetic Field

Like all other types of waves, electromagnetic waves also transport energy as they travel from one place...
to other. As, the energy, in an electromagnetic system is due to the oscillating electric and magnetic
fields. So, the total energy associated with electromagnetic wave will be;

U= E²+B²
E
We have, B = so

1 E2
11= E² +
2μ0 C²⁹
1

Using C = √Ho€o'
u= E²+ E² = €²

This also proves that the electric field energy is equal to magnetic field 'energy in an electromagnetic
wave.

2.20 Propagation of Electromagnetic Field Energy - Poynting Vector

Now we have to find out, how and in which direction the electromagnetic field energy propagates. Let
a plane electromagnetic wave of cross-sectional area ds, travelling with velocity C. The volume, crossing
in unit time will be C.dS. So, the energy density passing with this region per second is;
dU = u C dS EE²C dS
So, the energy flowing per time per unit cross-sectional area will be;
du
S= = €0E²C=uC (60)
ds
1
€ E².
√Ho€o

= E²
Ho

= E²1 √Ho€o
EE 1
(since = C)
C. Ho

So, S = EB
Ho

As we know in an electromagnetic wave, electric and magnetic field vectors are perpendicular to each.
other, so the above expression, in vector form can be written as;

S= (Ex B) (61)
Ho

Here S is a vector form of flow of electromagnetic energy per unit cross-sectional area per unit time,
which is perpendicular to both the electric and magnetic field vectors, called Poynting vector, also can
be written as;
(62)
S= EXH

57
Physics for Engineers

2.21 Electromagnetic Energy Theorem - Poynting Theorem

Poynting theorem in electromagnetism is equivalent to mass - energy theorem in mechanics. It states
that "rate of decrease of the energy in the electromagnetic fields in any volume minus flow of energy
per second through the surface of that volume is equal to the rate of work done on the charges by the
electromagnetic force or power transferred in the space". It can be written as
a 1

(²²+€0E²)dV - $(Ex B). ds = f(E.J)dv

1
atv2 Ho
Ho

Or- (E.D+H.B) - $(Ex H). ds = f(E. Jdv (63)

Where

(1)-(+€0E²} V = Rate of decrease of electromagnetic energy in the electromagnetic

2 Ho

fields in the volume V

(ii)-(Ex B). dS= Rate at which the energy is propagated by the electromagnetic fields through
Ho

the cross-sectional area that bounds the volume V

(iii) (E. J)dV = Power transferred into the free space or rate of work done by the electromagnetic
fields in the volume V

2.21.1 Derivation of Poynting Theorem

Writing Maxwell's equations in differential form
V.D=p or div D = p (1)
V.B=0 or div B = 0 (ii) (64)
ав JB
VxE=-- or curl E= = (iii)
at at
ᎯᎠ ƏD
VxH=J+ or curl H= J + (iv)
at

Taking scalar product of equation {64(iii)} with H and equation (64(iv)} with E, we get;
ƏB

H. (V x E) = -H. at (65)
ƏD
E. (V x H) = E.J + E. (66)
at

Now subtracting equation (66) from equation (65), we get;

JB ƏD

H. (V x E) - E. (V x H) = -H. E. E. J
at at
ƏB
H. (V x E)- E. (V x H) = -

at
+ E. - E.J (67)
We have the vector identity;
V. (Ex H) = H. curl E - E. curl H
So, the equation (67) takes the form;
ƏB
V. (Ex H) = -(H. +E.-E.J at (68)
For a linear medium we can write;
B = µH and D = €E
So, the equation (68) be written as;
(μH)
V. (Ex H) = -[H. + E. (E)- E.J (69)
at

Now rearranging E.
a (EE)
at
and H. (HH), we have;
at

E. (E)=(E²) = (CE²) = (ED) E.

(70)

58
Wave and Oscillations

H. (μH) = (H²) = (μH²) = (H.B)

at (71)

Using expression (70) and (71), the equation (69) takes the form;
Ә

V. (Ex H) = - (E.D+H. B)]--J.E (72)

On integration, the equation (52) over a volume V bounded by surface S, we have;

V. (Ex H) dV = -- (E.D+H. B)} av - JJ.E dv
dV

Using Gauss divergence theorem to change volume integral on L.H.S. of the above equation into
surface integral, we get

J. E dv=-E.D+H. B) dV-(Ex H). ds

This is the Poynting theorem..

2.21.2 Physical Significance of Poynting Theorem

Let us interpret each of the three terms individually.
(i) Physical Interpretation of -(Ex H). ds
Ex H = S is a quantity called poynting vector and is defined as the energy flow per unit time per unit
area i.e., power flow per unit area and is perpendicular to E and H both. So (Ex H).ds may be
defined as the rate at with the energy of the electromagnetic fields is decreased through the cross
sectional area that bounds the volume V
...

(ii) Physical Interpretation of -- (E.D+H. B) dv

Here, we have;

E. D. dV = Ue, Electrostatic potential energy in volume V

H. BdV = Um, Magnetic energy in volume V

U = = √(E. D + H. B)dV, represents some sort of potential energy of electromagnetic field, as it exists
due to static fields (electric and magnetic), known as electromagnetic field energy in volume V. A
concept such as energy stored in the field itself rather than residing with the particles is a basic concept
of electromagnetic theory.

Obviously(E. D + H. B) represents energy density of electromagnetic field i.e.

1
U= E. D + H. B)

Consequently, the term, E.D+H. B) dV represents the rate of decrease of stored

electromagnetic energy in volume V.

(ii) Physical Interpretation of J. E dv

To understand the physical significance of this term, let us consider a charged particle q in the charge
distribution acted upon by Lorentz force F=q(E+vx B), displaced by an amount dl. Where v may
be considered as the drift velocity of the charges. So, the work done in this displacement will be given
as;

dW = F. dl= q(E+vx B). dl= q(E + v x B). vdt

Or dWqE. vdt = F. vdt

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Physics for Engineers

aw
Or = F.v
at

We can also get the above expression as for an electromagnetic force due to field vectors E and B
acting on the charged particle, the magnetic force q(vx B) is always perpendicular to velocity. Hence,
the magnetic field does no work. Therefore, for a single charge q the rate of doing work by
electromagnetic field E and B is;
ᏧᎳ.
= F.v=qE. v (74)
at

If an electromagnetic field consists of a group of charges moving with different velocities e.g. n₁ charge
carriers each with charge qi, moving with velocity V₁ (1-1,2,3...); then equation (54) can be written as;
aw

at
= −Σ niqiv;. Ε; (75)

In this case, the total current density J = EJ₁ = Enq₁V₁. So, equation (55) becomes
aw
= -J₁. E₁ = -J. E (76)
at

Therefore, the expression, J. E dV represents rate of energy transferred into the electromagnetic field
through the motion of free charge in volume V.
The physical significance of the equation of Poynting theorem is that the time rate of decrease of
electromagnetic energy with a certain volume plus time rate of the energy flowing out through the
boundary surface is equal to the power transferred into the electromagnetic field. This is also the
statement of conservation of energy in electromagnetism which is known as Poynting theorem.

2.22 Momentum of Electromagnetic Field

As we know, anything containing energy, also have momentum. So, electromagnetic waves also must
have momentum. The expression for momentum of electromagnetic waves can be derived with the
analogy of momentum of a d' Broglie wave.

We have P = ,here P is the momentum of the d' Broglie wave, A is the wavelength and h is Planck's
constant.

u=hv=

Or u = PC
Or P = " (77)

From equation (60), we have the energy density per unit area per unit time as;
S = UC (here u is the energy density)
u S
So =
C C² (78)
From (77) and (78), we can have the momentum density of electromagnetic waves as
u S
P = =
(79)
C C²
Or

1
P =
HOC2 (EXB) as S= (EX B) (80)
Or

P = (EXH) (81)

Using equation (80) or (81), the momentum transferred by the electromagnetic waves into the medium,
can be calculated, if we have electric and magnetic field vectors at that point of the medium.

60
Wave and Oscillations

2.23 Angular Momentum in Electromagnetic Fields

Angular momentum is a physical property of a rotating object. Now, the first question arises that what
is the concept behind the angular momentum of electromagnetic waves? The propagation of a beam of
an electromagnetic wave is considered due to the helical type rotation of electric as well as magnetic
fields. So, if we look through the cross section of a light beam, the propagation of the beam of
electromagnetic wave will be seen as, composed of helical as well as spin type motion of light beam.
That's why electromagnetic wave should also possess angular momentum.
As according to the fundamental definition of angular momentum, "moment of linear momentum is
called angular momentum of a rotating object". So, according to this definition, the angular momentum
of beam of electromagnetic waves can be calculated as;
L=rxP

Here P is the linear momentum of electromagnetic field/wave and L is the moment of linear
momentum about the axis of rotation having r as the distance from axis of rotation, called angular
momentum. Now substituting the value of 'P' from (79) into the above equation, we have;
L = (rx S), or
L =
HoC²(r)(rx Ex B) (82)

L= (rxEXH) (83)

Here, it should be noted that angular momentum calculated from (82) or (83), is the angular
momentum density. The actual angular momentum will be found out using;
L = -f(rx Ex B) dv. (84)
H₂C²

L = S(rx Ex H) dv (85)

Obviously, the angular momentum of electromagnetic field, at any point can be calculated by taking
moment of the cross product of electric and magnetic field vectors of an electromagnetic wave at that
point. From equations (84) or (85), it can also be seen that angular momentum of an electromagnetic
wave is always perpendicular to the direction of propagation of electromagnetic wave.
The propagation of a beam of an electromagnetic wave, as viewed through the cross section of the
beam, is composed of two types of motion, one as the helical motion called orbital motion and the
other is the spin on its own axis. The beam of electromagnetic waves can be actually considered as
rotating around its own axis while propagating in helical path. So, the angular momentum of an
electromagnetic wave should be composed of spin angular momentum (SAM) and orbital angular
momentum (OAM) both. i.e.
L LSAM+ LOAM

For a well collimated beam, the optical polarization also called circular polarization is exclusively due to
Spin Angular Momentum while the Orbital Angular Momentum is related with the spatial field
distribution, and in particular with the wave-front helical shape. However, for highly focused or
diverging beam or otherwise in general, total angular momentum 'L', may server the purpose. Spin
angular momentum is widely being used in radar applications while orbital angular momentum is being
employed in optical fibre transmission.
2.24 Idea of Electromagnetic Waves
Ampère's circuital law was written and well explained for a circuit in which a conduction current is
flowing in the circuit. But if a circuit has a region where no conventional current is flowing, the Ampere
circuital law will not be valid at that place for example, the Ampere's circuital law cannot be applied
throughout the whole circuitry, if a capacitor is connected in a circuit powered by an alternating field
61
Physics for Engineers

Fig.2.1. During the flow of current inside the circuit, the Ampere's circuital law is applicable throughout
the whole circuit except in the space between the plates of the capacitor as there is no conventional
current. So, the Ampere's circuital law i.e., f B. dl= Ho I = 0 and is not valid in the space between the
plates of a capacitor. But the circuit is complete otherwise current will not flow in the connecting wires.
It means two plates of the capacitor should be connected with each other internally so that that the
current may flow in the external circuit. As, the whole circuit contains conduction current except the
gap between the plates of the capacitor, Maxwell gave a hypothesis that there must be some kind of
current in between the plates of the capacitor. Later, he termed it Maxwell displacement current which
was due to the presence of variable electric and magnetic fields between the plates. It means some
energy propagates from one plate to the other through the free space between the plates during the
charging and discharging of the capacitor over the complete cycle of the alternating field. As this energy
is propagating in the form of oscillating electric and magnetic field in the free space between the plates,
this may be termed as electromagnetic waves.

2.24.1 Discovery of Electromagnetic Waves

The existence of electromagnetic waves was first investigated by Heinrich Hertz, who succeeded in
generating and detecting radio waves. But he could not lay down the fundamental formulations for the
electromagnetic waves. Maxwell is well known for his pioneer work in the area of electromagnetic
waves. Using fundamental equations of electromagnetism, he not only developed the equations for
electromagnetic waves but also proved that at is an tromagnetic wave and is transverse in nature,
Today, we all know about complete electromagnetic wave spectrum which we receive from the Sun.
2.25 Electromagnetic Waves in Free Space
Although the four equations written in differential form are sufficient to understand the concept of
electromagnetic waves, but there is a need to formulate the equation of electromagnetic waves which
resembles the general wave equation so that we can treat and analyse that equation to find various
physical parameters of a.wave. By doing some mathematical operations on the Maxwell equation in
differential form, we can obtain the required equations of electromagnetic waves.
General Maxwell equations in differential form are as follows;
V.E or V.D=p (1)
€0

V.B=0
(ii)
ƏB
VXE=
ət
(iii) (86)
JE

VxH=J+oa at
(iv)

For free space, the charge density p and conduction current density J are both zero. So, the Maxwell's
equations reduce to:
V.E = 0 (1)
VXB=0 (ii)
ƏH

VXE = Ho at (iii) (87)

JE
VxH= Eo at
(iv)

Where Ho and Eo is the permeability and permittivity of free space.

Now taking curl of the equations {(87)(iii)}, we have
a(VxH)
VX (VxE) = - Ho at
(88)

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Wave and Oscillations

Simplifying the vector

triple product and putting the value of V x H from {(87)(iv)} into (88);
V. (V. E) - V²E= Ho[E]
J²E
V²E-Hoodt²0 (As V. E= 0 for free space) (89)

Similarly, taking curl of the equations {(87)(iv)}, we have

a(VxE)
VX (V x H) = - Eo at
(90)

Simplifying the vector triple product and putting the value of V x E from {(87)(iii)} into (90);
V. (V. H) - V²H = -oo
²н

V2H-Hoo dt² = 0 (91)

The equations (89) and (91) resemble the general wave equation (28), generally written as;
1 0²u
v²u = 0 (92)
v² dt²

Where u is a wave variable and v is the velocity of the wave.

Now comparing the equations (89) and (91) with (92), we can say that E or H are the variables of the
wave represented by these equations and the velocity of the waves is given by;
1
= Hoo, Or
v2

V = = C (93)
√Ho€o

Substituting the values of μo and Eo, the velocity of electromagnetic waves in free space con out
be 2.99x 10³ m/s, which is equal to the already calculated speed of light in vacuum.
As we have already shown that the variable electric and magnetic fields are coupled together. So, when
we write equation of electromagnetic wave, either of the one is sufficient to consider for further
treatment of the wave equation. One most important conclusion can be made here; the velocity of
electromagnetic wave in free space comes out to be equation to the velocity of light in vacuum. So, in
first impression, it may be said that light is an electromagnetic wave. We shall however find other
physical parameters of light with these equations to finally conclude the electromagnetic nature of light.
The following coupled equations having E and H, as wave parameters are called equations of
electromagnetic waves in the free space.
0²E

V²E-Hoo at² = 0
a²H
V2H-Hoo dt²
=0 (94)

And the velocity of electromagnetic waves in free space is calculated by;

1

For simplicity we can treat either of the two for finding various physical parameters of the
electromagnetic waves.

2.26 Electromagnetic Waves in a Non-Conducting Isotropic Dielectric

Let us study the propagation of electromagnetic waves in a medium which is linear, non-conducting
dielectric, isotropic and homogeneous. Let € and u are the permittivity and permeability respectively of
the medium. Let the medium is source free, the electric field enters from outside the medium then the
charge density p will be zero. Being non conducting, the conductivity o = 0 and hence the conduction
current density] =oE, is also zero.
Writing, the Maxwell's equations in differential form;
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Physics for Engineers

V.D = p or div D = p (1)

V.B=0 or div B = 0
(ii)
ƏB OB
VXE= or curl E =
at at (iii)
ƏD ƏD
VxH = J+ or curl H = J +
at
at
(iv)

Simlary,wecanhave (95)
Now putting, D= EE, B = µH, J = OE = 0 and p = 0, in (95), we have;
V.E=0
V.H=0
(ii)
ан
VXE-H (96)
at (iii)
JE

VxH=E ət (iv)

Taking curl of equation {(96)(iii)}, we get;

a(V x H)
VX (VxE) = μ at
Simplifying the vector triple product and putting the value of V x H from {(96)(iv)}, we have;
JE
V(V.E) - V²E= -H
0²E
V2E-μεdt²
=0 (97)

following equation for magnetic field intensity, i.e.

8²H
γ 2H - με
dt²
=0 (98)

So, in coupled form, the equations (97) and (98) are the equations of electromagnetic waves in a linear,
non-conducting dielectric, isotropic and homogeneous medium. Here, E and H, are the wave variables.
Comparing (97) and (98), with the general wave equation, the speed of electromagnetic wave in
isotropic, homogeneous, dielectric medium will be;
V=
με
1
=
(99)
(Km Hoketo)

Where Km and Ke are the relative permeability and permittivity of the medium respectively.
As we have C =
He is the speed of electromagnetic waves in free space. Hence, the velocity of
electromagnetic waves will be;
V=
(100)
VKm Ke
As Km 1 and Ke > 1: therefore we can say the speed of electromagnetic waves in. an isotropic
dielectric is less than the speed of electromagnetic waves in free space.
The ratio of velocity of electromagnetic waves in vacuum to the medium gives another physical
parameter which is widely being used for light as a relative parameter between two media called
refractive index of any medium i.e.

Refractive index = = = √km Ke = n(say)

For a non-magnetic material Km = 1; therefore, n = √Ke, i.e. n² = K₂

2.27 Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic Waves

To show the transverse nature of electromagnetic waves in a linear, non-conducting dielectric, isotropic
and homogeneous medium, let us have the wave equations as derived above;
64
Wave and Oscillations

1 0²E
V2E = 0 (101)
at²

1 8²H
V²H = 0 (102)
v² at²

Mathematically these are the second order differential equations. So, the plane-wave solutions of
equations (101) and (102), may be written as;
E(r, t) Egeikr-iot (103)
H(r, t) = Hoeikr-iwt (104)

Where Eo and Ho are complex amplitudes which are constant in space and time, while k is wave
propagation vector given by
K = kn = =f (105)

Here fi is a unit vector in the direction of wave propagation vector.

Now, as E(r, t) and H(r, t) are the solutions of the Maxwell waves equations so these should satisfy all
the four Maxwell equations, i.e.
V. E(r, t) = 0 (106)
V.H(r, t) = 0 (107)
ƏH(r,t)
Vx E(r, t) = μ (108)
at
JE(r,t)
VxH(r, t) = € (109)
at

Substituting E(r, t) and H(r, t) from quations (65) and (66) respectively we have;
V. Eoeikr-iwt 0 (110)

V. Hoeik.r - iwt = 0 (111)

Let us simplify equation (110), i.e., taking the dot product of Del operator and electric field vector we
have;

V.E=
=(1+1+k).Eeikr-iwt
= (1+1+k) [(1Eox +jEoy +´kEoz)e(kxx+kyy+k₂2)-iwt]
[since k. r= (îkx + ĵky + kkz). (îx + jy + kz)]
=[kxx + kyy + k₂z]
.V.E = (Eoxikx + Eoyîky + Eozikz) eikr-iwt
= 1(Eoxkx + Eoyky + Eozkz) eik.r-iwt
= î(îkx +jky + kk₂).(1Eox +jEoy + kEoz) eik.r-iwt
= îK.Eeik.r-iwt =ÎK.E=0
Thus V. E0 implies that
KE=0 (112)

Now, KE = 0, implies the wave propagation vector K and the electric field vector E of the.
electromagnetic wave are perpendicular to each other.
On doing similar operation on equation (111), we have;
V.H=Î K.H

Or

KH=0 (113)
Again, we can infer the propagation vector K and the oscillating magnetic field vector H are also
perpendicular to each other. The above mathematical operations, shows that both the wave variables E
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Physics for Engineers

and H oscillate perpendicular to the propagation of wave. This proves the transverse character of
electromagnetic waves.

2.28 Mutually Perpendicularity of Electric and Magnetic Field Vectors

On satisfying the equations (101) and (102) with the solutions given by (103) and (104), we have;
ƏH(r,t)
VxE(r, t) = -u (114)
at

JE(r.t)
V x H(r, t) = € (115)
at

Hoeikr-ict
VxEoeikr-iwt = -μ² (116)
at
Egeikr-lot
V x Hoeikr-iwt = E at
(117)

On simplifying the mathematical operations of the equations (116) and (117), we find;
iK x E = iμωH i. e. K XE = uwH 118)
KXH=-EwE 119).

Electric Field

Magnetic Field
Direction

Fig. 2.10 Transverse Character of Electromagnetic wave

The equations (118) and (119) shows that the wave propagation vector k, electric field vector E and
Magnetic field vector H are mutually perpendicular to each other. Simply we can say the electric and
magnetic fields are oscillating perpendicular to each other.

2.29 Some Other Physical Parameters of Electromagnetic Wave

By doing other mathematical manipulations on the equations derived above we are able to define a lot
of physical quantities related to the electromagnetic waves.

2.29.1 Wave Impedance

On rearranging the equation (118), we have;
H = (KX E) = -(fix E)
μω μω

Or

μω = μν, (since K =-).

THE μω H

VHE
(since v =Ve

DE =
(120)

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Wave and Oscillations

Now let us see what this quantity is showing. Putting the units of each term involved in it, we have;
volt/m volt
=
= ohm
amp-turn/m amp

This implies that the magnitude of =

is giving some physical quantity which has the unit as
ohm. This unit represents impedance.. Here, this is called wave impedance offered by medium when
electromagnetic waves propagate through it and is given by the modulus of the ratio of electric field
vector and magnetic field vector. This can also be calculated by the square root of the ratio of
permeability and permittivity of the medium. So, the wave impedance is given as;
Z=
H=√√
As we have the values of the permeability and permittivity of the free space as Ho and to, the
impedance offered by the vacuum when electromagnetic waves propagate through it is given by,
Zo=
€0

Substituting the values of Ho and Eo, the value of Zo comes out to be as;
Zo 376.66 ohm

2.29.2 Phase between Electric Field and Magnetic Field Vector

A simple way to find whether the two vector quantities are in phase or out of phase is that if the
modulus of the ratio of the two quantities is real then those two vectors are said to be in phase but if
the modulus of the ratio, is a complex quantity then the two vector quantities are said to be out of
phase. As we already have the modulus of the ratio of E and H in free space as well as in isotropic
dielectric, i.e.

= :==376.6 ohm, and Z = = = (Kn)

(KmHo
z=
Both of these are real. So, we can say when electromagnetic waves propagate in free space and isotropic
dielectric, the oscillations of electric field and magnetic field are in phase with each other.

2.29.3 Poynting Vector for a Plane Electromagnetic Wave in an Isotropic Dielectric

Let us find out the flow of electromagnetic energy when electromagnetic waves propagate through an
isotropic dielectric. The well-defined way of doing this is to find out the poynting vector of
electromagnetic waves in corresponding medium.
The poynting vector is calculated as;
S = EXH

= Ex ((₁×E)).
= Ex (AXE).¹
μV

= Ex (₁× E).

EX (fx E)

Z
(since Z = √)
(E.E) (E.)E²
=
Z
E2
6 (since E. fi = 0, as E and ñ are perpendicular) (121)
Z

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Physics for Engineers

As E and H are oscillating between maximum and minimum values of these physical quantities, so to
find the flow of energy of electromagnetic waves, we have to take time average of poynting vector ove
a complete cycle of electric of magnetic field vector i.e.;
(S) = (Ex H) = (A)

=((EoeKr- iwt)a)
real
fi
Since for finding actual physical fields, we often take real parts of complex exponentials. So, we have;
(S) =-E²(cos² (wt - K. r))fin
21. E₁²
=1/0²/16
=
=- ·ក

Efmsfi
=

Z (since Erms==5/12) (122)

The equation (122) gives the average energy flow of electromagnetic waves, per unit area per time ie.,
energy flux. It also shows that the flow of energy is along the direction of propagation of
electromagnetic wave.
Similarly for propagation in free space we have the time average poynting vector as;
Ems
(S) free space=Zo
fi (123)

2.29.4 Power Flow and Energy Density

Let us find the ratio
lectrostatic and magnetostatic energy densities in an electromagnetic wave fiel
1.e.

€ E² E²
le =
Z² = ¹=1 (124)
Um HH² HH² H μ

This implies that for the case of electromagnetic waves in an isotropic dielectric the electrostatic energy
density (ue) is equal to the magnetostatic energy density (Um).
Therefore, total electromagnetic energy density
u = U₂ + um = 2ue (since ue = Um)
= 2.-€E² = EE²

And the time average of energy density

(u) = e(E2) = e(((Epeik.r-iwt)²1)
= EE²(cos² (wt - K. r))
=/EE2

i.e., the total electromagnetic energy density (u) = ¹/€E = €E²ms (125)

2.29.5 Relation between Energy Flux and Energy Density of Electromagnetic Waves
Dividing equation (123) and (125), we have;
(S) E-ms f/Z

J
ក
√
= =

(u) € Erms
(since Z =

1
= As v =
V =v
(S)
= vn
(u)
(
)

) = (u)ví
S

(126)
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Wave and Oscillations

Energy Flux Energy Density X velocity of em waves in the medium

This equation implies that the energy density associated with an electromagnetic wave in the dielectrics,
flows with the same speed of the wave in the dielectrics and it is in the direction of propagation of the
wave.

Following points can be summarised for the electromagnetic waves in isotropic dielectric:
• The electromagnetic waves travel with a speed less than the speed of light in case of an isotropic
dielectric.
1

The electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature as the field vectors E and H are mutually
perpendicular and also perpendicular to the direction of propagation the electromagnetic wave.
The phase of field vectors E and H is same.
• The direction of flow of electromagnetic energy and the direction of wave propagation is same and
the energy flowing per second is represented as (S) Ems = (u)vn
Z

• The electrostatic energy density and the magnetostatic energy density are equal and the total energy
density is given as (u) = € Erms

• The energy density associated with an electromagnetic wave in dielectrics flows with the same speed
as of the wave in dielectric and in the direction of propagation of the wave.
2.30 Plane Electromagnetic Waves in a Conducting Medium
Maxwell equations in differential form are;
div D = V.D = p

div B = V. B = 0
ƏB
curl EV XE =
at
ƏD
curl H = V x H = J +
at

Let us assume that medium is linear and isotropic and is characterised by permittivity € permeability μ
and conductivity o, but not any charge or any current other than that determined by Ohm's law. Then
the parameters of the medium are D = EE, B = µH, J = oE and p = 0
So that Maxwell's equations for a linear, isotropic, homogeneous and conducting medium will be;
V.E=0 .(1)
V.H = 0 (11) (127)
ән
Vx E= -H (111)
at
JE
V x H = GE + E (iv)
at

Taking curl of equation {(127),(iii)}, we get;

d

VX (V x E) = μ
at (V x H)
(128)

Substituting (V x H) from equation {(127) (iv)} into (128), we get;

a
VX (V x E) ==μ (σE + €)
0²E

VX (V x E) = -0μ at – εμ at² (129)

As we know, Vx (Vx E) = V(V. E) - V²E (130)

Using identity (130) and putting V. E= 0 for the medium, the equation (129) takes the form;
JE 8²E

V²E-OH at - EH at² (131)

Similarly doing similar operation for magnetic field, we get;

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Physics for Engineers

ƏH 8²H
V2H=-0μ at €μ· (132)
at²

The equations (131) and (132) represent the equations of electromagnetic wave in a linear,
homogeneous, isotropic, conducting medium of conductivity o.
The general solutions of these second order differential equation (131) and (132)), is written as;
133)
E = Egeikr-ict

)
H = Hoeikr-iwt.

134
Where the wave vector, K, may be complex, while Eo and Ho are complex amplitudes which are
constant in space and time. Satisfying the solutions from (133) and (134) with the corresponding
differential equation (131) and (132) respectively, we get;
(−k2 + ίσμω + μέω2)E = 0
(—k2 + ίσμω + μεω2)H = 0
As the fields E or H are arbitrary, therefore this equation holds only if
(-k2 + ίσμω + μεω2) =0
k? = μ€w? (1 + ws) = μέω? +ίσμω (135)
From above equation, it seems that the wave propagation vector K is a complex quantity in the case,
when the electromagnetic waves propagate in a linear, isotropic, homogeneous and conducting
medium.

2.30.1 Other Physical Parameters of the Wave

2.30.1.1 Propagation Vector

Let us further simplify the equation (135) to find out some more physical parameters of electromagnetic
waves in a conducting medium.
Let K= a + iß

So K²=a²3² + 2iaß (136)

Comparing equation (97) and (98), we have
α? – Β2 = μεω (137)
And

2αβ = μωσ (138)

Or
μωσ
B=
2a'

So, we have;
(

)2
Hwa

q²_ =μew²
.
2a

a-Hew²a²_²w²0² = 0 4

H²w²0²
(@3)2 – μεω?α? – = 0
4

Comparing the above equation with the standard quadratic equation, we have the coefficients, a, b and
cas;

H²w²g²
a = 1, b = –μεω2, C =

√H²e²w* +4×1xH4²w²q²
a2 = μεω? ± 2

70
Wave and Oscillations

μew²±√μ²e²w++μ² w²²
2

μéw²± μ²e²w¹[1+ (²]

2

1/2

[{₁+)²}+1]
α=γμε.ω (139)

Similarly, the value of ß comes out to be;

1/2

{¹+(²-₁)
β =γμε.ω (140)

So, the wave propagation vector K of an electromagnetic wave travelling in a conducting medium
having conductivity o u permeability, e permittivity and was the frequency of em waves, can be
calculated as;
1/2 1/2

[√ {₁+ (_)²}+1 {₁+)²}

K= √ue.w
2
+ ίνμε.ω (141)

Which is a complex quantity.

Case 1. Propagation vector for Very Good Conductor

For a good conductor WE
1, so 1 can be neglected in comparison of so that a and ß are
WE

approximately equal i.e.

|μσώ
@€ =
a = = (με ω 2
β

So, the propagation constant comes out to be

μσω Ιασω
K= a +iß = +i
2

Case 2. Propagation vector for Very Poor Conductor

For very poor conductor, << 1, and be neglected then

a = √HE. w and ß may neglected or can be taken as zero.

(142)
: K= a +iß = √HE. W
1

Or K = since v =
νμε
This comes out to be as in the case of non-conductor and also shows negligible or zero attenuation of
electromagnetic waves in a very poor conductor, i.e., may be treated as a homogeneous isotropic non
conducting medium.

71
Physics for Engineers

2.30.1.2 Attenuation of Electromagnetic Waves in a Conducting Medium

Now putting the value of K = a + iß, in the equations (95) and (96) we have:
E = Enei(a+iß) n.r-it = Epe-Bn.rei (an.r-wt) (143)
H = Hoei(a+iß) n.r-iwt = Hoe-Bn.rei (an.r-wt) (144)
From equations (133) and (134), it can be seen that field amplitudes of the electric and magnetic
oscillations i.e., Ege-n.rand Hoe-Bnr respectively, are attenuated with distance due to the term e-Br
We can say the amplitude of electric and magnetic fields vectors decay exponentially. The quantity B is a
characteristic of the medium and is known as decay constant or absorption coefficient. So, the
attenuation coefficient of any electromagnetic wave in a conducting medium is given by;
1/2

[{1+)²}-1]
β = ν μειω 2
(145)

2.30.1.3 Penetration of Electromagnetic Wave into a Medium - skin Depth or Penetration

Depth
Now, we have seen that as the electromagnetic waves travel through a conducting medium, the
amplitude of the field vectors, attenuate with distance. The distance/depth from the surface of the
medium, at the amplitude becomes = 0.369, of its initial amplitude at the surface, i.e.,
E=Eo, is called skin depth penetration depth.
For this, the distance r should be and is denoted by 8.
B

So, the penetration of skin depth is given by;

11/2

1 1 2
8 =r===
(146)
.B VμE.C
{₁+(-)²}-₁\
For good conductor, the penetration depth is given by
1
8 =
B How
(147)

This expression may be useful to find the thickness of a conducting enclosure for protection from
electromagnetic radiation. This also shows that very high frequency electromagnetic waves travel
through the surface of the conductors.
Let us take a few examples:
(i) For copper at 60 cycles 8 is 0.86 cm, but at 1 megacycle, it has dropped to 0.0067. That is why in
high frequency circuits current flows only on the surface of the conductors. The major importance of
the skin depth is that it measures the depth to which an electromagnetic wave can penetrate a
conducting medium. Therefore, the conducting sheets which are used as electromagnetic shields must
be thicker than the skin depth.
(ii)) For silver o 107mho/m at a typical microwave frequency 108, the skin depth 10-4 cm.
Thus at microwave frequencies the skin depth in silver is very small and consequently performance of a
pure silver component and a silver-plated brass component would be expected to be indistinguishable.

72
Wave and Oscillations

(ii) For sea water o~ 4.3 mho/m at a frequency of 60 kc/s; so that 8≈ 1meter. That is why
radiocommunication with submerged submarine becomes increasing difficult at several skin depths.

2.31 Transverse Character of Electromagnetic Waves in Conducting Medium

Now satisfying the general solutions of differential equations of electromagnetic waves, we get;
iK. E = 0 or K. E= 0 (148)
iK. H = 0 or K. H = 0 (149)

These equations imply that field vectors E and H are both perpendicular to the direction of
propagation vector K. This implies that electromagnetic waves in a conducting medium are transverse
in nature.

On satisfying third and fourth equations we get

ƏH(r,t)
vx E(r, t) = μ (150)
at
JE(r,t)
V x H(r, t) = € (151)
at

ƏHoeikr-iwt
VxEgeikr-iwt = -μ² (152)
at
Egeikr-iot
Vx Hoeikr-iwt = € at
(153)
On simplification (152) and (153), we get;
iK x E = iμωH i. e. K x E = μω Η (154)
and

iK'x H = (o- iew) E ie. K x H = (ew + io)E (155)

The equations (154) and (155), imply that the electromagnetic field vectors 'E and H are mutually
perpendicular and also they are perpendicular to the direction of propagation vector K, in a conducting
medium also.

2.32 Relative Phase of E and H

Using equations (154) and (155), we have;

1 1
H = (KX E) = -k(n x E)
μω μω

= (a+iß) (nx E) (156)

μω
Ho a+iß
This implies that = = = complex quantity (157)
Eo μω

This implies that the field vectors H and E are out of phase in a conductor. The magnitude and phase
of complex wave vector is written as = |klei. and can be calculated as;

Ew [1 + (0)²]¹/4
|K| = |a +iB| = √√(a² + B²) = √HEW (158)

and = tan-1¹() == tan-¹() (159)

So equation (156) may be expressed as

H = √μew[1 + ( e* (n × E)
μω

- [¹ +)*(n*E)
ei() (nx E) (160)

73
Physics for Engineers

This equation shows that H lags behind E by the phase angle given by equation (159) and the relativ
magnitude of magnetic and electric field is;

H = = = √ [¹ + ()=
Eo
Where Z is the wave impedence in the conducting medium.
(161)

2.33 Poynting Vector or Energy Flow of Electromagnetic Waves in Conducting Medium

The Poynting vector is given by:
S = (EXH)
And the time average of poynting vector may expressed as
1/2

Sav = Re [Ex{[1 + ¹/² el(-) (nx E) }]

= √ [¹ + (-)²]* Re{E × (n × E*)e«−0)}

=√₁[¹ + (²] Re[{(E. E*)n) – (E. n)E*}e¹(-)]

= √₁ [1 + (-)²]* B² e-²0m²n cosø (162)

[Since (E. E*) = Ee-2ßn.r and Re (ei(-) = cosø]

For good conductor o/ew » 1 so that Ø = π/4 and also Erms = /2
Hence Sav={}BF²
Erms
e-2ßn.r

Energy density: The total energy density of electromagnetic field is given by

u = Ue + Um
where electrostatic energy le =Re (E. D*)
=eEe-2Bn.r (163)
1
EE2 (164)
rms e-zßn.r

and magnetic energy density Um = Re (H. B)

u Re(H. H*)

He-2ßn.r.
271/2
= μ² [1 + (-²)¹/² B² e-²Pa.r using (161)
1/2
= c {[1 + (-)²]¹/² z e-²8mx}
-2pm.r}
=[¹ + (²¹² U₂
(165)

So, the total energy density u = Ue + Um = Ue + •+[₁ + (2)² ¹/²u U₂

= [₁ + {₁ + ()²}]¹/¹²- Ue

74
Wave and Oscillations

1/2

= [1 + {1+ ()²}]¹² × €²ms e-2Bmr (166)

From equations (162) and (166) it is clear that the energy flux and energy density are damped as the
electromagnetic wave propagates in a conducting medium. This energy lose is due to Joule heating of
the medium.

Following points can be summarised for the electromagnetic waves in conducting medium

●
The electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature in which the electric field vector E and
magnetic field vector H are mutually perpendicular and perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of electromagnetic wave.
●
The amplitudes of electric and magnetic field vectors E and H respectively are damped
exponentially as the wave propagates deeper in the conductors.
●
The electric and magnetic field vectors E and H of the electromagnetic wave are not in the same
phase as H lags behind E by angle Ø given by.
1
Ø= tan-1
2 λεων
And the magnitude of H is much greater that than of E.
●
The energy flow is along the direction of propagation of electromagnetic wave and is damped
exponentially as the wave propagates in the conducting medium.
.
The magnetic energy density is much greater than electric energy density and both are damped
exponentially as the wave propagates in the conducting medium.

****Solved examples****

Based on S.H.M

Ex.1 If a particle moves in a potential energy field U = Uo- ax + bx² where a, and b are positive
constants, obtain an expression for the force acting on it as a function of position. At what point
does the force vanish? Is this point of stable equilibrium? Calculate the force constant, time period
and frequency of the particle.
Sol. Force acting on the particle is given as
du
(1) F = - ==
dx
(U₁-ax+bx² ) = a - 2bx
du
(ii) The force vanishes at the point wheredx= 0 i.e.

a 2bx = 0 or x = a/2b

Which gives the position of point where the force vanishes.

d²U
(iii) = 2b such that b is positive, the point x = a/2b represents the point of minimum
dx²
potential energy on the energy curve of the particle. It is point of stable equilibrium
(iv) From the expression of force F in (i)above, the linear restoring force and force constant
k is equal to 2b.
75
Physics for Engineers

Ex.2 What is the frequency of a simple pendulum 2.0 meters long?

Sol. The time period of a simple pendulum is given by:
T = 2π

Frequency,

1 g
n = 1/T ==
2π √1.
Here 1 = 2m, g = 9.8m/s²
Frequency

1 1 9.8 1
n ===

T 2π 2
=

2π
√4.9 0.3524/sec
V

Based on gradient, divergence, curl

Ex.1 A scalar field u is given by u = x³y -xz² + yz. Find grad uand its value at the point (0, 2,-1).
Sol. We have u = x³y -xz² + yz
ə
.. grad u = Vu = (i; +j
ax dy +kəz ).[x³y -xz² + yz]
= i(3x²y-z²) + j(x²+z) + k(+2x+y)
This is grad u. It's value at (0, 2, -1)is given as
(grad u )(0,2,-1) i (-1) + j(-1) + k(2)
=-i-j+2k

Ex.2 Find grad r where r is a position vector.

Sol. We have
r=ix + jy + kz and r= |r| = √√x² + y² + z²
. r= (x² + y² + z²)n/2
r = Vr" =[i+j+k]
ду
(x² + y² +2²)/2
= ₁/(x² + y² +2²)(n/2)-1.2x + j. (x² + y² +2²) (n/2)-1 2y + <(x² + y² + z²)(n/2)-1.2z

= (ix + jy + kz) [n(x² + y² + z²)(n/2)-1]

= (r. nr²) (n/2) -1 = rn rn-2
Thus, grad r² = nr-2 =nrn-1f
In particular, if n = -1 or, respectively, we have grad r = f
12
And grad -

We can obtain these results by direct calculation also.

Ex.3 Show that grad log r =
Sol. We have
av av
grad log r = V log r = ( iv +j + kдz )log ( + y² + z²)
ду
1

= i √x²+ y²+ z²¹(x² + y² + 2²)-1/².2x + 1.√²+²+2²²(x² + y² + 2²)-1/2,2y + k.

√x²+y²+z²(x² + y² + 2²)-1/2,2z
ix + jy + kz

x²+y²+z²

76
Wave and Oscillations

Thus, grad log r =

Ex.4 A spherical equipotential surface is given by

V(x, y, z)= a(x2 + y² + z²)
Where a is a constant. Show that the force field is radial.
Sol. We know

ᏧᏙ . av av
F = - grad V = [+ + k]
��
х ду əz
av av av
= 2ax, = 2ay and = 2az
əx ду дz

F = 2a [xi+y)+zk] = -2ar
Where r = x 1 + y ĵ+ z k is the position vector of point (x, y, z). since F x r, it is a radial force field.
Ex.5 If r is the position vector (r= ix+ jy + kz), evaluate div rand div f.
Sol. We have

arx dry +
ərz ər ər ər
div r = + = + = 1+1+1=3
ax ду дz əx ду дz

Ә
div=div () = 26.²
ax r
:) + ду
+ (²)+(²)
X

) + two similar terms.

(x² + y² +2²)1/2
1

(x²+y2+z2)1/2.2x
+ two similar terms.
(x² + y² +2²)

2 + two similar terms= (²+3)) + two similar terms.

1, x²+ y²+ z²
= ( - ) + ( - )+ (-3)==- //( ²)= ³-1 = ²
Thus div T =

Ex.6 Show that div()is zero

Sol. We have
ix + jy + kz
div () = ( )= div [ (x² + y² +2²)3/2 ]
a X
= + two similar terms.
ax (x²+ y² +2²)3/2
(x² + y² +z²)2.1 - x²(x² +y² +z²)². 2x
+ two similar terms
(x² + y² + z²)3
1 3x²
]+ two similar terms
(x² + y² +2²)3/2 (x² +y² +2²)3/2
+ two similar terms

+
(-3)+(-3)
(x² + y² +2²), (r²)

73=0
Ex.7 What must be the value of p so that the vector field p represented by p= i(3x + py - 2z) + j(2x +

y-2pz) + k(4px - 3pz) is a solenoidal field?

Sol. We want div p = 0
77
Physics for Engineers

Ә
Now div p= Px + +

ox (3x + py −2z) + ay (2x + y —2pz)

= 3+1-3 = 4-3р
::
div p = 0 if 4 - 3p = 0
Or = 4/3

Ex.8 Evaluate grad div B and div (grad u)

Sol. We have

Grad (div B) = (
ƏBx

Әх
+ aBy + aBz)
ду дz
Ә Ә
= [i + + а, JBx + aBy JBz
azk ][ +
]
��
х ay
дх ду дz
J2Bx 32By J2Bz+j 02Bx + O2 By J2Bz a2Bx O2By +, O2Bz
= i( + +
+
��
х²
+ )+k(
ах ду ах дz
дудх ду? ду дz дzах дz ду дz2
Again,
ди ди
Div (grad u) = div (i ��
su
х
+ +

д ди
=
ади
��хах ду ду
дгидгид и ә2
= + 32
+
дх2 ду? ду? дz2
az²
Ex.9 A central force field F is F = k rr. The field F is solenoidal such that div F = 0.
Sol. Since k + 0; for field to be solenoidal, so
div(rhr) = (1 x +1 y + azk).rn (xi +yj +zk)
=
ax (rmx) +Hay(rhy) + ox(rhz)
Let us evaluate ox (rmx),
ox (rmx)= ^x [ (x2 + y2 + z2)2. x]
= (x2 + y2 + z2)*.1+ (x2 + y2 + z2)?−1 x 2x
= rn + nx²(r2)2-1 = rn + nx2rn-2
Similarly, (rny) = rn + ny2rn-2
and ax(rhz) = rn + nz2pn-2
div(rnr) = 3rn + (x2+y2 + z2)rn-2
= 3rn + nrn = (3+n)rn
In order that div F = 0; 3+ n = 0
Or n=-3

F(r)=k/r3
Ex.10 Show that the position vector r = (ix + jy + kz) is irrotational
Sol. We have to show that curl r = 0
i j k

Ә Ә ə дz
Now curl r = Vxr=
��
x ду dz
= i( -
ay) + two similar terms -
X Z
y

78
Wave and Oscillations

дz
Now as z does not depend on x and y and so on, we have each of
ду
and Oy
дz
equal to zero.
Hence curl ri(0) + j(0) +k(0)= 0
Since curl r is zero, r is an irrotational vector.
Ex.11 Given that the vector E defined by.
E = (2x - 5y + pz)i + (qx + 3y)j + (ry + 6z + 3x)k is irrotational, find p, q, r.
Sol. We have

JEZ JEy
(curl E)x= ( )and so on.
ду дz

Hence (curl E)x=(r= 0) = 0

(curl E)y= (p 3) = 0
(curl E)z (q-5) = 0
Thus, p=0, q= 5, r=0
Ex.12 If B = yz²i- xyzj + 3x2z3 k, find curl B at the point (0, 1, 1).
Sol. We have

(curl B)x= (₂-)

ду ��
z
= (3x²z³)-(-xyz) = 0 +xy= xy
Ә
Similarly, (curl B)y= (y2²) ду
(3x²z³) = 2yz + 6xz³

(curl B)z =(-xyz) -

av (vz²) = - yz -z²

.. curl B = i(xy) + j(2yz + 6xz³)-k(yz + z²)

Thus (curl B)0,1,1 i(0 x 1) + j(2x1x1+6x0x1³)-k(1 x 1 x 1²)
= 2(j-k)

Ex.13 If F= (xy)i-(yz)j +(zx)k, find curl F and curl(curl F). Evaluate it at (0, 0, -1).
Sol. We have 20151
OFz OFy JFx OFz OFy Əx
Curl Fi(
ду
<)+ j(Dz
дz
-

əx
)+k(
Əx
-
)

=i[ (2x) —— (-yz)] + [(xy) - (v2)] + k[(-yz) - (x)]

= i(+y)+ j(-2) + k(-x)
:. Curl (curl F) =i[(-x)-1(-2)] + [(v) - (x)] + k[(-2) (+y)]
= i(+1)+ j(+1)+k(-1)
Curl(curl F)=i+j+k
It has the same value at all points and value at (0, 0, -1) is also i+j+ k.

Based on Equation of continuity, Displacement current

Ex.14 A parallel plate capacitor having circular plates of radius 5 cm is being charged. If the electric
field between the plates during charging is changing at the rate of 1012 V/ms, find the displacement
current between the plates...
Sol. The displacement current is
døE
Id = odt.
d
=
(πR²E)
dt
dE
= ETR²
dt

79
Physics for Engineers

= 8.85 x 10-12 x 3.14 x (5 x 10-2)² x 10¹2

= 0.070 A = 70mA

Ex.15 Show that equation of continuity div J + 0 = 0 is contained in Maxwell's equations.

at

Sol. From Maxwell's fourth equation, we have

ƏD
curl H= J+ at
(1)
Taking divergence of either side of (1), we get
div curl H= divv (J + DD.) (2)

But div curl H= 0 since divergence of curl of any vector always vanishes; therefore equation (2) gives
div (1+) = 0
ƏD
i.e.,
div J + div =0
at
Ә
i.e.,
div J +at(div D) = 0 (3)

(since space and time operations are interchangeable)

Also, from Maxwell's first equation div D = p, therefore equation (3) gives
ap
div J + = 0.
at
This is the required result.

Based on Poynting vector, Poynting theorem

Ex.16 Calculate the magnitude of Poynting vector at the surface of the sun. Given that power radiated
by sun = 3.8 x 1026 watts and radius of sun = 7 x 108m.
Sol. From definition of Poynting vector S, it is the power radiated per unit area and surface area of sun
in 4TR², R being radius of sun.
P = S.4R²
P 3.8 x 1026
i.e., S= =
4πR² 4 x3 14 x(7 x 108)²

= 6.175 x 107 watt/m².

Ex.17 If the average distance between the sun and earth is 1.5 x 10¹¹m and the power radiated by
sun is 3.8 x 1026 watt, show that the average solar energy incident on the earth is 2 cal/cm²-min
(called the solar constant).
Sol. If r is the distance between sun and earth, and Se is the Poynting vector at the surface of earth,
then

Se 4πR² = P
P 3.8 x 1026
Se= =
4πR²
watt/m²
4 x3-14 x(1-5 x 1011)²
3.8 x 1026x60

4 x3 14 x(1-5 x 1011)2 x 42 x 104

cal/cm² min
= 2 cal/cm² min.

Ex.18 If the earth receives 2 cal min-¹ cm 2 solar energy, what are the amplitudes of electric and
magnetic field of radiation?
Sol. From Poynting theorem, the energy flux per unit area per second is
|S| = |E XH| = EH sin 90° = EH. ... (1)
80
Wave and Oscillations

The energy flux per unit area per second at earth is (given)
2 x4-2 x 104
= 2 cal min-¹ sec-1 = joule m-2 sec-1 ... (2)
60
Comparing (1) and (2), we get
2x4.2 x 104
EH = = 1400 ... (3) -
60

E OTI 4 x 10-7
But = =
= 376 6.
H
V8-85 x 10-12
Multiplying equations (3) and (4), We get
E2 1400 x 376.6
E=√(1400 x 376 25
6) = 1
726 1 volt/m.
Substituting this value of E in (3), we get
1400 1400
H =
E
= = 1.928 amp turn/m.
726-1

Amplitudes of electric and magnetic field of radiation are

Eo E√2 726 1√2= 1027 volt/m.
Ho H√2 1 928√2 2 730 amp - turn/m.
, calculate the average
Ex.19 values
Assuming
of the that allintensities
the
of energyelectric
from
and
uniformly
a 1000-watt
magnetic
fields
lamp
of is radiated
radiation
atadistance of 2m from the lamp.
Sol. Considering the lamp as a point source, the total flux energy over a sphere drawn round the lamp
as centre is 1000 watt 1000 joules/s.
This energy flux on area 4r² = 4 x 2² = 16 m²; therefore, the energy flux per unit area
per second = 1000/16n² watt/m².
Hence from Poynting theorem
1000
|S| |Ex H EH = ... (5)
16T²

(Ho 376-6
and. =
... (6)

Multiplying equations (5) and (6), we get

1000
E2 = x 376.6
167²

1000 11/2
E = [10376-6
16π²
48 87 volt/m.
Substituting the value of E in equation (5), we get
1000 1000
=
H =
161²E 16m² x48:87
= 0.1297 amp - turn/m.

Based on electromagnetic wave travelling in free space

Ex.20 Consider an electromagnetic wave in free space whose electric field is given by:
E = 60% exp[-i (10³t+ az)]
Where all the quantities are in SI units. Determine the direction of propagation, the wave number,
the frequency and the magnetic field of the wave.
Sol. Comparing the argument of the exponential, 108t + az, with the standard expression wt - k.r
we see that the direction of propagation isk = -2. This direction satisfies the condition . E = 0
The wavenumber is given by

81
Physics for Engineers

k= a: 2π/2
C

108 1
= -m-1
3 x 108 3
The frequency of the wave is
W 108
V = = 1.67 x 107Hz
2π 2 x 3.14
The magnetic field is similar in form to the electric field:
B= Bo exp[-i (108 t +
The magnitude of Bo is given by
Eo 60
B===
C с
60
=
= 2 x 10-7tesla
3 x108

Ex.21 A plane electromagnetic wave is travelling in the direction. Its frequency is 100 MHz and
the electric field is perpendicular to 2 direction. Write down the expressions for the E and B fields
that specify the wave.
Sol. Since the wave is travelling in the - direction, the E field is normal to X. Also, E is
perpendicular to 2 direction. Therefore, E is in the ŷ direction. The expression for the E field can
be written as

E Eoŷ cos(kx + wt)

Where w = 2πv = 2₁ x 108 Hz
2π
And k = = m-¹

Thus,

E = Eoŷ cos[2mx + 10³t)

The corresponding B field is given by

B= (k× E) = ( X
×EE)

= k XE
=(-8 x 9)Eocos[2n (x + 10%t)]
=

-
Eo 2 cos[2π (x + 10³t)]
==

Ex.22 The electric field of an electromagnetic wave in free space is given by

-²x), E₂ = 0
Ex = 0, Ey = 50sin (2π x 10³t-.

Where all the quantities are in SI units. Determine a) the wavelength of the wave b) the direction of
propagation of the wave and c) the direction of the magnetic field.
Sol. The problem can be solved by comparing the given expression for Ey with the standard
expression
Ey Eosin(wt - kx),
w 2π x 108 rad/s, k =
2πT 2π
= 5m
a) Wavelength λ = k
=
21/5

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Wave and Oscillations

b) The direction of propagation is the +x direction.

c) Since E is the +y direction and k is along the +x direction, the B field is along the + z
direction.

Based on electromagnetic wave travelling in a dielectric medium

Ex.23 A plane electromagnetic wave travelling in positive z-direction in an unbounded lossless
dielectric medium with relative permeability H. = 1and relative permittivity &, = 3 has a peak electric
field intensity Eo 6 V/m. Find
i) The speed of the wave
ii) the intrinsic impedance of the medium
iii) The peak magnetic field intensity (Ho), and
iv) The peak Poynting vector Ś (z, t).

Sol. Eo = √(E²ox + E²oy) = 6V/m, & = 3, µ₁ = 1.

i) The speed of electromagnetic wave
1
V= =

με √(HrHo&r&o)
1 1

√(Hoεo) √(Hrεr) √(Hrey)

3x108
1 73 x 10 m/s.
√(1X3)

ii) Impedance of medium

HrHo OTI
Z= = =

ErEo

4π x 10-7 376-6
= =

8.86 x 10-12 √3

= 217.60.

iii) Peak value of magnetic field

Eo
Ho = = = 2.76 x 10-2A/m.
Z 217-6
iv) Poynting vector SEX H
Eo²
Peak Poynting vector = EoHo =
6²
= = 0.165 W/m²
217.6

Ex.24 In a homogenous non-conducting medium the electric and magnetic fields of electromagnetic
wave are given by:
E = 30m2 exp[i (wt - y)] V/m and H= 18 exp[i (wt - y)] A/m
네

It is given that for the medium, H, 1. Calculate a) &, b) the velocity of light in this medium c) w
Sol. a) From the equation:

᾽Ε
네요

4
|Hr
Z = = 377
H Er

30π = 377

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Physics for Engineers

Or&, = (37)² = 16
b) The velocity of light in the medium is
1
V=

VIE √HoHr&o&r
1 1
= (- =)(
√Hoo VHrEr
с

= =

√HE √1x 16
с 3 x 108
=

= 7.5 x 107m/s

c) w = vk = =() () == 108rad/s
Based on skin depth
Ex.25 Calculate the skin depth for 3 MHz electromagnetic wave through copper. (Give
conductivity o = 6 x 107mho/m, μ = 4 x 10-7Henry/m.
2 2 2
Sol. 8 = = =
= 37.5μm
|μσω μσ(2πν) √4 x 10-7 x 6 x 107 (2π x 3 x 106)
Ex.26 The constitution parameter of aluminium is given by r = 1, &r = 1 and o= 3.54
107mho/m. Find the frequency for which the skin depth/penetration depth of aluminium i
0.01mm.

2
Sol. 8 = =

|μσω γμα(πν)
1
Or, v =
π82μσ

3.14 x (0.01x10-3)2 x 1 x 3.54 x 107

1000
= 89.96 Hz
3.14 x 3.54

Ex.27 For silver, o = 5.0MS/m. At what frequency will the depth of penetration 8 be 1mm?
1
Sol. V = = 84.4kHz
√п8²μо
Ex.28 Show that for a good conductor the magnetic field lags the electric field by 45°. Determine
the ratio of their amplitudes.
Ιμσω
Sol. a + iß= (1 + i)
2

(μσω μσω
α= and B =
2

-1 B= 45⁰
= tan
a

***Review Questions***
Based on Simple harmonic motion
1.What is meant by a harmonic oscillator? Obtain expressions for (1) its displacement and velocity
at a given instant (2) time period and frequency
84
Wave and Oscillations

2.Show that for a simple harmonic oscillator, mechanical energy remains conserved and that its
energy is on an average, half kinetic and half potential in form. At what particular displacement is
this exactly so? What is the ratio between its kinetic and potential energies at a displacement equal to
half of its amplitude?
d²x
3. Solve the differential equation +w²x = 0 to obtain the expression x = Asin (wt + 8) for
dt²

the displacement of a particle executing S.H.M.

4.Show that for a S.H.M may be expressed as either a sine or a cosine wave function, there being only a
difference of initial phase in the two cases.
5. Is it really possible to construct a truly simple pendulum? What are the drawbacks of simple
pendulum?

6. How does a compound pendulum differ from a simple pendulum? Obtain an expression for its time
period and mention its points of superiority over simple pendulum.
7. Define centres of suspension and oscillation of a compound pendulum and show that they are
interchangeable. What length of the pendulum has its minimum time period?

Based on Equation of continuity, displacement current

8.State the equation of continuity.
9.What is the physical significance of equation of continuity?
10.What is meant by displacement current?
11.In what way the displacement current is different from the conventional current?
12.What is the value of displacement current when a capacitor becomes fully charged? Give explicit
reasoning for your answer.
13.Give the equation of continuity of electromagnetic theory. Explain the inconsistency of Ampere's
law for transient currents. How was the law modified in its generalized form to overcome the
inconsistency?
14.Discuss in brief the inconsistencies in Ampere's law and describe how Maxwell fixed up this.
Further discuss in brief the characteristics of displacement current.
15.Illustrate mathematically how and under what conditions does Ampere's circuital law fail. How did
Maxwell modify Ampere's law to make it consistent under all conditions? Give the mathematical
justification to prove this consistency.

Based on Maxwell's equation

16. Write Maxwell's equation differential form.
17.Write Maxwell's equation in integral form.
18.One of the Maxwell's equations is V. B = 0. What is its physical implication?.
19.What was the most important consequence of Maxwell's equations.
20. Explain how Maxwell's equations were developed. Write them in integral and differential forms.
21.Write Maxwell's equation in integral form. Discuss the physical meaning of each of these.
22.Enumerate Maxwell's equations and show how they predict the existence of electromagnetic
waves.

Based on electromagnetic waves in free space

23.What is the velocity of electromagnetic waves in free space?
24.Show that the electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.
25.Show that in an electromagnetic wave the E and B fields are perpendicular to each other and also
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
85
Physics for Engineers

26.What is wave impedance? What is its value for free space?

27.Write the expression for the refractive index of a medium in terms of electric and magnetic
quantities.
28.State Maxwell's equations for the electromagnetic fields and obtain the wave equations for E and B
in free space.
29.Discuss the propagation of plane electromagnetic waves through free space. Establish the
transverse nature of these waves. What is the expression for wave impedance?

Based on Poynting theorem and Poynting vector

30.State the Poynting theorem. Explain the term Poynting vector.
31. What is Poynting vector and what does it represent?
32.State Poynting theorem.
33. What is Poynting vector? How is the Poynting theorem derived from Maxwell's curl
equations? Explain Poynting theorem.

Based on em waves in isotropic dielectric

34.Write down Maxwell's equations for electromagnetic fields in a homogeneous isotropic dielectric.
Solve these equations to get the velocity of propagation of electromagnetic waves. Why do we regard
these waves as transverse? Show that the wave energy is equally shared between the electric and
magnetic fields.
35.Discuss the propagation of plane electromagnetic waves in a non-conducting medium.
36.Obtain the wave equation for a plane E M wave in an isotropic dielectric medium and show
that its velocity of propagation is less than the speed of light. 4

37. (a) Write Maxwell's equations in differential form and give their significance.
(b) Derive the wave equation for an isotropic dielectric medium. Prove the orthogonality of E, H
and K vectors. Find the wave impedance of the medium.

Based on Wave in conducting medium

38.What do you understand by skin depth?
39. (a) Discuss the propagation of monochromatic plane electromagnetic waves in a conducting
medium. (b) Show that in a good conductor the magnetic field lags the electric field by 45°. Determine
the ratio of their amplitudes.

40.Define skin depth. Show that in case of good conductor, the skin depth is given by 8 = νωσμ

Show that inside the conducting medium electromagnetic wave is damped and obtain an expression for
skin depth.
41.Obtain the equation of plane em wave in a conducting medium. Prove the orthogonality of electric
vector E, intensity of magnetic field H and propagation wave vector k.

*******

86