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Geochemical Characteristics of Non-Volcanic Geothermal Systems in the

Quaternary Volcano Area: Case Studies on Gunung Ungaran, Gunung Endut,
and Gunung Ciremai Indonesia

Conference Paper · September 2022

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PROCEEDINGS, The 8th Indonesia International Geothermal Convention & Exhibition (IIGCE) 2022

Geochemical Characteristics of Non-Volcanic Geothermal Systems in the Quaternary

Volcano Area: Case Studies on Gunung Ungaran, Gunung Endut, and Gunung Ciremai
Indonesia

Aditya Yuda Kencana1,2 * and Niniek Rina Herdianita2

1PT Geo Dipa Energi (Persero), Jalan Warung Jati Barat No. 75 Jakarta Selatan, Indonesia
2Department of Geological Engineering, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Jalan Ganesha No. 10, Bandung, Indonesia
*[email protected]

Keywords: non-volcanic, Ciremai, Endut, fault-controlled, sediment-hosted, Ungaran

ABSTRACT
The geothermal system is divided into volcanic and non-volcanic systems based on the heat source. Volcanic geothermal systems are
associated with Quaternary volcanoes and generally have high reservoir temperatures. Meanwhile, non-volcanic geothermal systems
are not directly related to volcanism and are generally outside the Quaternary volcanic area. However, some of them can be very
close to the Quaternary volcanoes, e.g., Gunung Ungaran (Kendalisodo-Kaliulo), Gunung Endut, and Gunung Ciremai
(Sangkanhurip-Pejambon) geothermal systems. This study aims to determine the geochemical characteristics of a non-volcanic
geothermal system located in the Quaternary Volcanic area in Indonesia. Several previous studies have stated that those geothermal
systems are part of the outflow zones from their main system (volcanic system). This is due to its location on the flank of the volcano
or about 5 – 10 km from its peak. However, the area is a separate upflow zone which can also be defined as a separate geothermal
system. Geologically, it is an intrusion-related, fault-controlled, or sediment-hosted hydrothermal system. The system is characterized
by the appearance of manifestations in the form of warm-hot springs with immature Cl-HCO3-SO4 water types, some of which are in
partial equilibrium conditions because of water reactions with sedimentary rocks in the reservoir. It is also characterized by
enrichment of chloride (852 – 5879 mg/L), boron (11 – 234 mg/L), and ammonium (11 – 32 mg/L). The stable isotope content can
be enriched by δ18O close to the isotope range of formation water. The hydrothermal fluid in the reservoir is the result of mixing
meteoric water and formation water, without the influence of magmatic fluid. This non-volcanic geothermal system is also classified
as a medium enthalpy resource with reservoir temperatures ranging between 140 and 180°C.

1. INTRODUCTION
Based on the heat source, geothermal systems are classified as volcanic and non-volcanic. Volcanic geothermal systems are associated
with Quaternary volcanoes, and their reservoir temperatures are often high. Non-volcanic geothermal systems, on the other hand, are
typically beyond the Quaternary volcanic area and have no direct connection to volcanism. However, some of them, such as Gunung
Ungaran (Kendalisodo-Kaliulo), Gunung Endut, and Gunung Ciremai (Sangkanhurip-Pejambon), can be quite close to Quaternary
volcanoes. The goal of this study is to identify the geochemical properties of a non-volcanic geothermal system found in Indonesia's
Quaternary Volcanic region. Several earlier studies have claimed that those geothermal systems are a part of their parent system's
outflow zones (volcanic systems). This is due to its location on the volcano's flank, approximately 5 to 10 kilometers from its peak.
Due to the presence of intrusion bodies, faults, or sedimentary layers, the area may be considered a separate geothermal system.

2. GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM
According to Hochstein and Browne (2000), the geothermal system is defined as a system of natural heat transfer in the earth's crust
from a heat source to a heat sink. One type of geothermal system is a hydrothermal system. In this system, heat transfer occurs from
the heat source (usually pluton) to the surface by convection. The heat transfer involves meteoric water that can mix with magmatic
water, formation water, and seawater.

Kasbani (2010) divides geothermal systems into three types, namely volcanic, volcanic-tectonic, and non-volcanic. The type of
volcanic geothermal system is a system associated with Quaternary volcanoes and generally has a high reservoir temperature
(Kasbani, 2010). The system can be divided into composite volcanic body systems (e.g., Gunung Salak, West Java), volcanic complex
(e.g., Wayang-Windu, West Java), and caldera (e.g., Sibayak, North Sumatra). Most types of volcanic geothermal systems in
Indonesia are hydrothermal systems with high topography and high enthalpy.

Non-volcanic geothermal systems are geothermal systems that are not directly related to volcanism and are generally located outside
the Quaternary volcanic pathway, such as fields in South Sulawesi, Southeast Sulawesi, and Kalimantan (Kasbani, 2010). Anderson
and Lund (1979) argue that one type of non-volcanic geothermal system is a geo-pressure system in a sedimentary basin. Duffield
and Sass (2003) stated that the geothermal system of sedimentary basins is formed when hot water is trapped and exchanges or mixes
with fluids in the surrounding rock. Sedimentary basin geothermal systems are the result of the interaction of various sources and
mechanisms of heat transfer from the depths to the surface.

Meanwhile, Tamanyu and Sakaguchi (2003) stated that non-volcanic geothermal systems can be in the Quaternary volcanic zone and
Neogene-Quaternary sedimentary basins (Figure 1). The following are types of non-volcanic geothermal systems based on Tamanyu
and Sakaguchi (2003).

a. Active fault
The fault that plays a role in this system is an active fault of the Quaternary age. The fault is a pathway for hot water from
below the surface to rise to the surface.
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b. Intrusion
Hot springs that come out of this system are close to the presence of Quaternary intrusive rocks, both exposed to the surface
and below the surface. These intrusive rocks can provide heat which is a source of heat for this geothermal system.
c. High heat flow
This system can be related to the presence of sedimentary basins or insulating bodies such as igneous rocks below the surface.
The Hirosaki and Kamikita geothermal fields in Japan have geothermal gradients of 60 oC/km and 40oC/km (Tamanyu and
Sakaguchi, 2003). While the normal geothermal gradient according to Lowel, et al. (2014) is equal to 25 oC/km. Thus, the
Hirosaki and Kamikita fields are examples of this type of high heat flow geothermal system. Meanwhile in Indonesia, the types
of high heat flow geothermal systems are in the Kutai Basin (East Kalimantan), the Melawi Basin (West Kalimantan), and the
Meratus Mountains (South Kalimantan); (Meilani, 2019).

Figure 1: Model of a non-volcanic geothermal system in the Quaternary volcanic zone and sedimentary basins. The heat
source in the system is from active fault, intrusion, and high heat flow (Tamanyu and Sakaguchi, 2003).

3. METHODS
The data used in this study include the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data, lithology, geological structure, and fluid chemistry data
(anions, cations, isotope δ18O, and δ2H). DEM data are obtained from the website of the Geospatial Information Agency
(http://tides.big.go.id/DEMNAS/). Secondary data in the form of stratigraphy, geological structure, and fluid chemistry were obtained
from the Centre of Mineral, Coal, and Geothermal Resources (PSDMBP, Geological Agency of Indonesia), other publications, and
field checking. The methods used in this study are as follows.

a. Geological Analysis
The lineaments analysis is performed to identify geological structures, e.g., fault and circular features. The lithology or
stratigraphic analysis is used to determine the possibility of reservoir lithology and the distribution of rocks in the study area.
Then the map is made from a combination of the geological map and field mapping data.
b. Geochemical Analysis
Geochemical data of thermal springs from the manifestations are anions, cations, isotope δ 18O, and δ2H. Anions and cations
data are plotted on the diagram Cl-HCO3-SO4, Na-K-Mg, geothermometer, and geoindicator to determine the fluid type, fluid
origin, reservoir temperature, and fluid flow patterns. The isotopes (δ18O and δ2H) of thermal springs are used to determine the
process fluid and recharge areas. To confirm the origin of hydrothermal fluids, analysis of gases and isotope δ 13C from several
geothermal manifestations was also used.

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Gunung Ungaran Geothermal Field
Gunung Ungaran is a composite volcano produced from the magmatism process behind the arc (Indarto et al., 2006). According to
Claproth (1989), there are three volcanic cycles of Gunung Ungaran, i.e., the period of Oldest, Old, and Youngest Gunung Ungaran.
The first cycle, namely the Oldest Gunung Ungaran, is occurring in the Late Pliocene – Middle Pleistocene age. The cycle ends with
the formation of the first collapse (Oldest Ungaran Caldera). Then the second cycle is the formation of Old Gunung Ungaran on the
body of the Oldest Gunung Ungaran. This period occurred at the age of 1.4 ± 0.5 - 0.52 ± 0.06 million years ago (Kohno et al., 2005)
or the Middle-Late Pleistocene (Claproth, 1989). The cycle ended with the formation of the Old Ungaran Caldera and the formation
of intrusion bodies on the ring fault of the Old Ungaran Caldera such as Gunung Kendalisodo (in the southeast of Gunung Ungaran),
Puntang (in the south), Mergi (in the northeast), Pobongan (in the northeast), and Siwakul (in the northeast). The last cycle occurs at
the Late Pleistocene – Holocene age, which is known as Young Gunung Ungaran volcanism. According to Kohno et al. (2005), this
period occurred at the age of 0.3 ± 0.2 - 0.22 ± 0.05 million years ago. Based on van Bemmelen (1949), the formation of the Old
Ungaran Caldera was caused by gravitational collapse due to the empty magma chamber which was also controlled by tectonic
activity. This process produces a caldera structure called a volcano-tectonic structure.

The Geological Map of Gunung Ungaran is shown in Figure 2. Gunung Ungaran grows on Tertiary-aged sedimentary rocks in the
form of Kerek, Penyatan, and Kaligetas Formations. The sedimentary basement rock was exposed and scattered around Gunung
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Kencana and Herdianita

Ungaran. The order of rock stratigraphy in the Gunung Ungaran area from old to young according to Hadisantono and Sumpena
(1993) is Kerek Formation, Penyatan Formation, Payung Formation, Kaligetas Formation, Merangkang Volcanic Unit, Munding
Lava, Suroloyo Volcanic Unit, Andesite Intrusion, Ungaran Volcanic Unit, and Alluvial sediment.

Figure 2: Geological Map of Gunung Ungaran Field (modified from Hadisantono and Sumpena, 1993).
Geothermal manifestation observations were conducted in the form of observation of manifestations, data recording, and sampling
of water for chemical analysis, and surface deposits for petrography. There are several manifestations in the research area, i.e.,
Gedongsongo fumarole, Gedongsongo hot springs (GS-1), Kaliulo (UN-1), Diwak (UN-2), Derekan (UN-3), and Kendalisodo (UN-
5) warm springs. Here is a description of the location and physical appearance of each hot and warm spring.

a. Gedongsongo (GS-1)
Gedongsongo area is a major geothermal manifestation of Gunung Ungaran; consists of a fumarole with a temperature of 88.5oC
with noisy characteristics, hot springs with a temperature of 54.5 oC, as well as an altered rock. Hot springs have an acidic pH
(2.68) in the presence of gas bubbles.
b. Kaliulo (UN-1)
Kaliulo spring temperature was measured in the field at 34.9 oC with a pH of 6.68 and TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) was
measured at 14,000 mg/kg. The physical condition of the spring is brown in watercolor, foaming quite a lot, and bubbling. The
discharge of these warm springs also formed travertine and salt deposits. Outcrops of travertine are spread to an area of
approximately 10 x 5 m2 with a thickness of each layer of about 5 - 20 cm. Kaliulo springs discharge at the lithological contact
between pyroclastic breccia and limestone in the form of the Kaliulo Fault. From the petrographic analysis, the travertine shows
a crystalline texture that indicates an aging process. This shows that travertine is older than salt deposits.
c. Diwak (UN-2)
Diwak springs are discharged into the river and have been used directly as a bathing pool. This spring has a measured field
temperature of 39.1oC, pH 6.25, and TDS 1,560 mg/kg with the appearance of gas bubbles. Besides, there are iron oxide deposits
along the pool wall. Diwak springs discharge on the pyroclastic breccia lithology.
d. Derekan (UN-3)
Derekan springs discharge beside the river. This spring is located approximately 250 meters from the Diwak spring. The
discharge of this spring has also been utilized as a bathing pool. However, some seepage of warm springs discharges into the
river. The temperature of the Derekan spring is measured in the field of 38.1 oC, with a pH of 6.33, and TDS of 1,410 mg/kg.
The physical condition of the spring is brown in watercolor, bubbling, and iron oxide deposits are formed. Derekan springs
come out on pyroclastic breccia lithology.
e. Kendalisodo (UN-5)
In this area, there is a warm yellowish-brown watercolor spring with a temperature of 35.6oC and a pH of 6.36, called
Kendalisodo spring. The spring discharges in a pond measuring approximately 1.0 x 1.5 m 2 with travertine deposits around it.
The travertine has a thickness of about 20 cm and shows a layering of dendritic and crust morphology.

The diagrams Cl-HCO3-SO4 and Na-K-Mg are shown in Figure 3. The types of water that are present in the research area are as
follows.

a. Chloride Water
Kaliulo spring (UN-1) is classified in the chloride water type. This spring has a very high chloride content compared to other
springs, which is 5879.51 mg/L. Sodium (Na+) is the cation with the highest concentration compared to other cations (Ca, Mg,
and K), at 5251.66 mg/L. Kaliulo spring has a TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) value of 14,000 mg/kg and EC (Electrical
Conductivity) of 19,490 µS/cm. These TDS values indicate that Kaliulo spring has saline or seawater characteristics based on

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the classification of Freeze and Cherry (1979). Meanwhile, the high boron (B) and ammonium (NH4+) content in Kaliulo springs
(233.66 and 31.50 mg/L, respectively) indicate the influence of organic element-rich sedimentary rocks (Nicholson, 1993). The
Kaliulo spring (UN-1) in the Na-K-Mg diagram shows the plot in the partial equilibrium zone. This indicates that the Kaliulo
spring has been in equilibrium during the process of interaction between water and rocks. Anomalies in the concentration of
these elements indicate that the Kaliulo spring (UN-1) is a spring affected by water formation from sedimentary rocks.

b. Chloride-Bicarbonate Water
The type of chloride–bicarbonate water is indicated by the Kendalisodo spring (UN-5). The high bicarbonate content (1392.48
mg/L) in the spring indicates the presence of a process of mixing with meteoric water. This is supported by the plot of
Kendalisodo springs (UN-5) in the Na-K-Mg diagram which is in the immature waters. Thus, it is interpreted that Kendalisodo
springs are produced by the process of mixing hydrothermal fluids with meteoric water.

c. Bicarbonate Water
Springs that are bicarbonate water types are Diwak (UN-2) and Derekan (UN-3). In addition to bicarbonate ions, the spring has
a high magnesium content, which is 135.55 mg/L (Diwak spring) and 136.70 mg/L (Derekan spring). This can be seen in the
Na-K-Mg diagram which shows the plot of the Diwak and Derekan springs which are in the immature waters zone. Thus, those
springs are interpreted as hydrothermal fluids which are influenced by the process of mixing with meteoric water (groundwater)
as they rise to the surface.

d. Sulfate Water
Gedongsongo hot springs (GS-1) belong to the sulfate water type. In the Na-K-Mg diagram, the Gedongsongo spring is in the
immature waters zone. This shows that the Gedongsongo spring is formed from a secondary process, i.e., condensation of steam
rich in H2S gas into groundwater. In high terrain geothermal systems such as Gunung Ungaran, sulfate springs together with
fumaroles will be found in the upflow zone.

Based on the Cl-Li-B diagram in Figure 4, Kaliulo springs (UN-1), Diwak (UN-2), and Kendalisodo (UN-5) have relatively similar
Cl/B ratios, i.e., 25 (UN-1), 26 (UN-2), and 25 (UN-5). While Derekan springs (UN-3) have a Cl/B ratio of 15. Gedongsongo springs
(GS-1) have a different Cl/B ratio from other springs, which is 9. The differences in the Cl/B ratio in Gedongsongo springs from
other springs show that the hydrothermal fluid of the Gedongsongo (Gunung Ungaran) system is different from the Kendalisodo
system (east of Gunung Ungaran). This is supported by the geological conditions in the presence of the Oldest Ungaran Caldera
between the two systems, given that the caldera structure can be a boundary for geothermal systems. Meanwhile, the difference in
the Cl/B ratio in the Derekan and Diwak springs does not indicate a difference in the reservoir. This is because the two springs
discharge at a close range and on the same geological structure, namely the Derekan Fault (based on the Geological Map of Gunung
Ungaran in Figure 2).

Figure 3: The diagrams of Cl-HCO3-SO4 (left) and Na-K-Mg (right).

Figure 4: Cl-Li-B diagram.

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Water from Kendalisodo spring (UN-5) has a low Na/K ratio value, which is 21. Meanwhile, the value of the Na/K ratio of Diwak
and Derekan springs also showed low values, which are 8 and 9. This indicates that the Kendalisodo, Diwak, and Derekan springs
discharged at the upflow zone. Geographically, the Kendalisodo springs discharge on the inside of the Old Ungaran Caldera, while
the Diwak and Derekan springs discharge on the outside of the caldera. Thus, in the research area, there are two upflow zones, which
are in the Kendalisodo and the Diwak-Derekan areas.

The interpretation of reservoir temperature was performed using several geothermometers. In the Kendalisodo system, the
Kendalisodo spring (UN-5) is a warm spring with a flow rate of 0.1 L/sec and there are travertine deposits. Therefore, adiabatic quartz
and Na-K-Ca geothermometers cannot be used for reservoir temperature estimation. While the value of Log (√Ca/Na) + 2,06 in the
Kendalisodo spring shows a positive value (0.51), then the Na-K geothermometer cannot be used. The K-Mg geothermometer at the
Kendalisodo spring cannot be used, as the geothermometer estimates a low (underestimate) value, i.e., 78oC. The Kendalisodo sector
is a geothermal system associated with the intrusion rocks aged Quaternary, therefore it will have a higher reservoir temperature.
Thus, the reservoir temperature estimation of the Kendalisodo sector was performed using a conductive quartz geothermometer
showing the reservoir temperature of 170 ± 10oC.

In the Diwak sector, the Kaliulo spring (UN-1) cannot be used for geothermometer estimation even though it is included in chloride
water. This is because the water type of the Kaliulo spring is affected by the formation water. The values of Log (√Ca/Na) + 2,06 at
Diwak (UN-2) and Derekan (UN-3) springs show positive values, respectively 1.01 (UN-2) and 1.03 (UN-3), therefore for estimating
reservoir temperature, the Na-K geothermometer cannot be used. The adiabatic quartz geothermometer cannot be used to estimate
the reservoir temperature of the Diwak sector, because the Diwak and Derekan springs are warm springs with flow rates of 0.5 and
0.2 L/sec, respectively. The Na-K-Ca and K-Mg geothermometers in the Diwak and Derekan springs, like the Na-K geothermometer
and adiabatic quartz, cannot be used. This is since these two geothermometers estimate low values (underestimate), namely 60-90ºC.
The Diwak sector is expected to have a higher reservoir temperature, because of its association with the Quaternary volcano zone.
Thus, the reservoir temperature estimation of the Diwak sector was performed using a conductive quartz geothermometer at the
Diwak and Derekan springs showing a reservoir temperature of 160 ± 10 oC. Based on Hochstein’s classification (1990), the
Kendalisodo and Diwak sectors are included in the medium enthalpy geothermal resources.

The N2-CO2-Ar and N2-He-Ar diagrams are used to determine the origin of the gas and possible contamination of the sample from
both free air and meteoric. The plot results of the gas samples of Gedongsongo (GS), Kendalisodo (UN-5), and Diwak (UN-2) on the
diagrams of N2-CO2-Ar and N2-He-Ar are shown in Figure 5. The gas from the Gedongsongo fumarole demonstrates the source of
the high-temperature liquid in the upflow zone, which includes magmatic fluid. Meanwhile, the gases Kendalisodo and Diwak are
produced by low-temperature shallow steam with a strong meteoric component. The most soluble gas is NH 3, followed by H2S and
CO2. Figure 6 depicts the CO2-H2S-NH3 results of gas samples from Gedongsongo, Kendalisodo, and Diwak. All the plots for the
gas samples are close to the CO2 area. This demonstrates that the fluid undergoes a condensation process before it manifests as a
surface manifestation.

The stable isotopes δ2H and δ18O in the Gedongsongo hot spring (GS-1) are close to the range of magmatic/andesitic water isotopes
(Figure 7). The addition of isotopes δ2H and δ18O becomes heavier in the Gedongsongo hot spring (GS-1), compared to the meteoric
water (Gedongsongo cold spring/AD-1), caused by the mixing process with magmatic water. This process produces the type of water
from the Gedongsongo hot spring to become sulfate with an acidic pH (2.68). This condition is also strengthened by the gas analysis
which indicates the presence of magmatic fluid.

The isotope composition of the Kendalisodo spring (UN-5) shows a plot close to the local meteoric water line. This condition indicates
the presence of a mixing process with meteoric water in the Kendalisodo spring. This interpretation is strengthened by the value of
the isotope δ13C in the Kendalisodo spring, which is -5.77 ‰. The δ13C isotope value indicates the origin of meteoric water or
freshwater (which has a value ranging from -23‰ to 0‰) based on (Trumbore and Duffel, 1995). In addition, the chemical
characteristics of the Kendalisodo springs also indicate the effect of meteoric water (Figures 3; immature chloride-bicarbonate water
type).

Figure 5: N2-He-Ar (left) and N2-CO2-Ar (right) diagrams that show gas origin.

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Figure 6: CO2-H2S-NH3 diagram. All samples indicate the condensation process before discharge to the surface
The Diwak spring (UN-2) shows a stable isotope pattern that shifted slightly to the left but is still around the local meteoric water
line. Meanwhile, the stable isotope plot of the Derekan spring (UN-3) is right on the local meteoric water line. These conditions
indicate that the Diwak and Derekan springs were affected by meteoric water. This is supported by the type of water from the spring
in the form of immature bicarbonate water, which indicates a mixing process with meteoric water.

The Kaliulo spring (UN-1) discharges in the same geological structure (the Derekan Fault) as the Diwak and Derekan springs. The
isotope δ2H and δ18O plots in the Kaliulo (UN-1) spring are close to the isotope range of limestone formation waters. This shows that
there is an influence of formation water in Kaliulo spring. This condition was supported by the very high TDS and EC values, as well
as the type of chloride water (with high Na, Cl, B, and NH4 content). Thus, in the Diwak geothermal sector, hydrothermal fluid is not
only affected by meteoric water and mixing with surface water but also by formation water (increasingly dominant towards the east).

Figure 2: Relationship of isotopes δ2H and δ18O in thermal and cold springs.

4.2 Gunung Ciremai Geothermal Field

Gunung Ciremai is an active volcano. It has lithologies of Pliocene sedimentary rocks of Ciherang Formation and Quaternary volcanic
rocks product of Gunung Ciremai and its flank eruptions of Gunung Gegerhalang, Dulang, Buntung, Pucuk, and Sukageri. The
volcanic rocks are dominantly basaltic to andesitic; dacitic rock is found in the volcanic product of Gegerhalang. Geological structures
present in the Gunung Ciremai geothermal field include NE-SW, NW-SE, and ESE-WNW faults, and circular features identified as
the Gunung Ciremai crater and calderas. Geothermal surface manifestations are present as thermal springs having temperatures of
less than 60°C at Pejambon, Sangkanhurip, Ciniru, Gunung Kromong and Liang Panas. The geological map of Gunung Ciremai is
shown in Figure 8.

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Figure 8: Geological Map of Gunung Ciremai Field (modified from Situmorang et al., 1995).
The diagrams Cl-HCO3-SO4 and Na-K-Mg are shown in Figure 9. Characteristics of thermal water discharging as a surface
manifestation in the Gunung Ciremai geothermal field are as follows:

a. Pejambon (GC 1 - 4)
Thermal water discharging in Pejambon is immature HCO3, Cl, and SO4 water, indicating a mixture of hydrothermal fluid and
meteoric water. The source of sulfate (up to 582 mg/L) is probably from the formation water in the sedimentary rock horizon.
Before discharge as surface manifestation, the fluid experienced dilution with meteoric water or groundwater.
b. Ciniru (GC 5 – 6)
Ciniru thermal spring belongs to the immature chloride water type. This spring is plotted on the Cl corner zone (mature water)
in the Cl-HCO3-SO4 diagram, but on the immature zone in the Na-K-Mg diagram. Even though the Ciniru spring belongs to
the chloride water type, this spring is not a brine reservoir water. The high content of chloride (up to 1,442.40 mg/L) and sodium
(up to 858.83 mg/L) may be due to mixing with trapped sediment water in the rocks. This possibility is supported by a significant
amount of boron (up to 11.10 mg/L); showing the influence of sedimentary rock.
c. Sangkanhurip (GC 7 – 12)
Thermal water discharging in Sangkanhurip springs are immature chloride waters. The thermal water does not represent deep
reservoir fluid, even though belongs to the chloride water type. It indicates a mixing between hydrothermal fluid and connate
or formation water. It seems that the springs have a high concentration of boron (10.43 – 12.71 mg/L) and ammonium (0.91 –
2.31 mg/L) with salty water characteristics. This condition is supported by the presence of sedimentary rock formation outcrop
at the foot of Gunung Ciremai (near Sangkanhurip area), i.e., Ciherang Formation.
d. Gunung Kromong (GC 13 – 18)
Thermal waters discharging in the Gunung Kromong area (north of Gunung Ciremai) are divided into four water types, i.e.,
chloride water (Palimanan; GC-13 and GC-14), sulfate water (Cipanas; GC-17), sulfate-bicarbonate water (Palimanan; GC-
15), and bicarbonate water (Gunung Kuda and Kedondong; GC-16 and GC-18). All springs are immature water. The chloride
water type in Palimanan springs results from mixing hydrothermal fluid with connate or formation water. This is supported by
the high concentration of ammonium (up to 14 mg/L) and travertine deposits.

The condensation process that occurred in this area produced the acid sulfate water in Cipanas spring (pH 2.6). Near the surface,
condensate water can be experienced mixing with meteoric or groundwater, thus, producing sulfate-bicarbonate water in the
Palimanan spring. Meanwhile, the bicarbonate water type in Gunung Kuda and Kedondong springs is caused by the mixing of
hydrothermal fluid with meteoric or groundwater.

e. Liang Panas (GC 19)

The Liang Panas spring is a partial equilibrium chloride water type. This water has a high concentration of sodium (2,269 mg/L)
and chloride (3,616 mg/L); indicating the connate fluid origin. However, Liang Panas thermal spring may not be correlated
with Gunung Ciremai geothermal system since the location of this spring is far (about 19 km) to the southeast of Gunung
Ciremai and is separated by a circular feature.

Based on the stable isotopes trend in Figure 10, all thermal springs are in the meteoric water line, showing the process of mixing with
meteoric or groundwater, except GC-13 (Palimanan). There is a significant δ18O shifting in Palimanan thermal spring (GC-13). This
condition is due to the mixing with connate or formation water from sedimentary rock. Therefore, it is interpreted that the

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Kencana and Herdianita

hydrothermal fluids in Gunung Ciremai geothermal area originated from meteoric water. The fluids also experienced mixing with
connate or formation water, then mixing with meteoric or groundwater near the surface.

Figure 9: The diagrams of Cl-HCO3-SO4 (left) and Na-K-Mg (right).

Figure 10: Relationship of isotopes δ2H and δ18O in thermal and cold springs.
In general, there are three clusters of Cl/B ratio (Figure 11), i.e., first cluster is Gunung Kromong thermal manifestations (GC-13 to
GC-18) and Liang Panas (GC-19) that have high Cl/B ratio. The high value of Cl/B, particularly in Palimanan springs (GC-13 and
GC-14), is due to the mixing process with connate or formation water. Therefore, the similar Cl/B ratio of Gunung Kromong and
Liang Panas does not represent a similar reservoir, since the location of Gunung Kromong in the north of Gunung Ciremai, meanwhile,
Liang Panas is located far to the southeast of Gunung Ciremai.

The second cluster is Sangkanhurip and Ciniru thermal springs that possibly originated from a similar system or reservoir. The
Pejambon thermal springs (GC-1 to GC-4) seems to have different cluster with Sangkanhurip and Ciniru. This suggests that the
Pejambon springs may be sourced from a different reservoir than the Sangkanhurip and Ciniru springs. Consequently, it is supposed
that the Gunung Ciremai geothermal field comprises four hydrothermal systems, i.e., Gunung Kromong, Sangkanhurip-Ciniru,
Pejambon, and Liang Panas.

Some geothermometers are used to determine reservoir temperature to improve subsurface interpretation. The quartz conductive
geothermometer in the Pejambon springs (GC-1 to GC-4) estimates a temperature of around 176 to 186oC. Other geothermometers
will not be able to be used this spring. As a result, it is suspected that the reservoir of the Pejambon system is around 180 ± 10oC. In
the Sangkanhurip-Ciniru system, only conductive quartz geothermometers can be used. The reservoir temperature at the
Sangkanhurip springs (GC-9 to GC-12) is estimated to be between 136 and 151oC. As a result, the reservoir temperature of the
Sangkanhurip system is estimated to be 140 ± 10oC. Quartz conductive and Na-K-Ca geothermometers in Gunung Kuda (GC-16)
indicate a temperature range of 152 and 141oC, respectively. As a result, the reservoir temperature in the Gunung Kromong system
is predicted to be around 150 ± 10oC. Temperature estimation using the quartz conductive and Na-K Truesdell (1976) in Liang Panas
spring (GC-19) shows the value of 120oC and 123oC, while Na-K-Ca, Na-K Fournier (1979), and Na-K Giggenbach (1988)
geothermometers of this spring show estimation temperature of about 194 oC, 164oC, and 183oC, respectively. Since Liang Panas is
located far from the volcanic area, the temperature of the Liang Panas system reservoir is interpreted as about 120 ± 10oC.

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Figure 11: Cl-Li-B diagram.

4.3 Gunung Endut Geothermal Field

The Gunung Endut geothermal field consists of lithologies of Miocene sedimentary rocks from Sareweh, Badui, and Bojongmanik
Formations, Pliocene Pre-Endut volcanic rocks (including products from Gunung Kendeng, Gunung Pilangranal, and Gunung Pilar),
Miocene to Pliocene diorite to granodiorite intrusions and Pleistocene Gunung Endut andesitic volcanic rock. The sedimentary rocks
are claystone, sandstone, siltstone, and limestone; the rocks have been deformed and formed synclines and anticlines, that have axes
trending east-west. Other geological structures present in the Gunung Endut geothermal field include cross-cutting NW-SE, relatively
N-S and relatively NE-SW faults, and circular features of Gunung Endut caldera-like and Cikawah crater-like structures. The crater-
like structure in Cikawah was likely formed by a hydrothermal eruption and it has undergone silicification. The structure is also
responsible for the appearance of the Cikawah hot spring. The other thermal springs are Handeuleum in the west of Cikawah. The
geological map of Gunung Endut is shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12: Geological Map of Gunung Ciremai Field (modified from PSDMBP, 2006).
The active geothermal surface manifestations occurring in the Gunung Endut geothermal field are 2 hot springs, namely Cikawah
and Handeuleum on the west side of Gunung Endut.

a. Cikawah
Cikawah hot springs discharge on Cikawah River at coordinates 643,653 mE and 9,269,116 mN, and elevations of +375 meter.
The measured temperature in the field is 80-93°C. The field measured pH is around 7.40-8.03 and the measured discharges are
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1 L/s. Cikawah hot water is colorless having an H2S gas odor. The spring discharges were spotted along the southwest Cikawah
river, where silicification (silica and pyrite) occurred and the soil was about 62°C.
b. Handeuleum
Handeuleum hot springs are discharged on Cisimeut River at coordinates of 641,108 mE and 9,268,666 mN, and elevations of
about +245 m. The spring is colorless, having temperatures of 54-57°C, pH of 7.52-8.32, and a discharge rate of 0.5 L/s.
Handeuleum spring emerges on a highly fractured andesitic rock. A very strong smell of H2S gas is recognized in this hot
spring.

All the thermal springs are categorized as hot springs, which have temperatures above 50°C (i.e., ranging from 53 - 93°C). Field
measurement of pH shows that all thermal springs are neutral to alkaline (pH is 6.74 to 8.45). The smell of sulfur or hydrogen sulfide
(H2S) gas was recognized in Cikawah and Handeuleum hot springs. Nicholson (1993) mentioned that H2S gas originated from
magmatic degassing. Therefore, the smell of H2S gas might indicate that Handeuleum and Cikawah hot springs are related to
magmatism or intrusion body. However, the thermal waters are bicarbonate (HCO3) rich showing groundwater or meteoric water
origin.

Thermal waters discharging in Cikawah springs are immature to partially equilibrium HCO3, Cl, and SO4 waters (Figure 13). The
thermal water does not represent deep reservoir fluid, but it indicates a mixing between hydrothermal fluid and meteoric water. It
seems that the relative HCO3 content is higher, but the relative Mg content is lower in samples taken in 2021 than in the 2006 and
2012 samples. This indicates that the thermal water becomes more equilibrated with the rock.

The water-rock interaction also produced high B and NH4 in Cikawah springs, i.e., up to 8.97 and 11.25 mg/L respectively. Nicholson
(1993) mentioned that a high concentration of NH4 and/or B can be found in deep fluids associated with sedimentary rocks. The B
and NH4 anomalies in Cikawah waters are possibly due to interaction between thermal water and sedimentary rocks or mixing
between thermal and connate waters. This possibility is supported by the geology of Gunung Endut which is associated with Tertiary
sedimentary rock formations, i.e., Bojongmanik, Badui, and Sareweh Formations.

Thermal waters discharging in Handeuleum springs are immature HCO3, Cl, and SO4 waters, indicating a mixture of hydrothermal
fluid and meteoric water. Handeuleum springs also contain a significant amount of B (up to 2.33 mg/L) and NH4 (4.80 mg/L), showing
the influence of sedimentary rock. A geochemical survey of PSDMBP (2006) mentioned that Handeuleum has a very strong H2S
odor; the concentration of diluted H2S in Handeuleum hot spring can reach 4.20 mg/L.

Figure 13: The diagrams of Cl-HCO3-SO4 (left) and Na-K-Mg (right).

The isotope composition of thermal and cold springs in the Gunung Endut geothermal field is shown in Figure 14. In general, all hot
springs are located to the right of the local meteoric water line, showing enrichment of the δ18O isotope. The positive shifting of the
18O isotope is caused by the substitution reaction of δ18O from the rock with δ16O from hot fluid during water-rock interaction.

The most significant δ18O isotope shifting is on GE-1 and GE-4 (Cikawah hot spring). This condition is due to the water-rock
interaction process in those hot springs. This interpretation is supported by the Na-K-Mg diagram, showing that the GE-1 and GE-4
springs are in the partial-equilibrium zone. The other hot springs show the process of mixing with meteoric water. Therefore, it is
interpreted that the hydrothermal fluids both in Cikawah and Handeuleum originated from meteoric water. The fluids from the
Cikawah and Handeuleum reservoir have experienced water-rock interaction with the reservoir rock, then mixed with meteoric water
near the surface.

The reservoir temperature estimation using the quartz adiabatic and conductive geothermometers shows results of about 153°C and
162°C, respectively. Temperature estimation using the Na-K-Ca and Na-K-Ca with Mg correction in shows the estimation of about
150°C. Therefore, the reservoir temperature of the Gunung Endut geothermal field, represented by Cikawah samples, is 150±10°C.
However, the reservoir temperature of the Handeuleum reservoir might be lower (as low as 120±10°C) due to mixing and dilution
with near-surface meteoric water.

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Figure 14: Relationship of isotopes δ2H and δ18O in thermal and cold springs.

5. SUMMARY
Gunung Ungaran (Kendalisodo-Kaliulo), Gunung Ciremai (Sangkanhurip-Pejambon), and Gunung Endut geothermal systems are
intrusion-related, fault-controlled, or sediment-hosted hydrothermal systems. The system is distinguished by the appearance of
manifestations in the form of warm-hot springs containing immature Cl-HCO3-SO4 water types, some of which are in partial
equilibrium due to water reactions with sedimentary rocks in the reservoir. It also has chloride, boron, and ammonium enrichment.
The stable isotope content can be enriched by δ18O close to the isotope range of formation water. The hydrothermal fluid in the
reservoir is the result of the mixing of meteoric water and formation water without the influence of magmatic fluid. This non-volcanic
geothermal system is also classified as a medium enthalpy resource with reservoir temperatures ranging between 140 and 180°C.

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