MODULE 2: DEFECTS IN TIMBER

Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Definitions .
2.2.1 Properties
2.2.2 Drawbacks
2.3 Classification of Timber
2.3.1 Exogenous Trees
2.3.2 Endogenous Trees
2.4 Structure of a Tree
2.4.1 Macro-structure
2.4.2 Micro-structure
2.5 Defects in Timber
2.5.1 Defects due to Conversion
2.5.2 Defects due to Fungi
2.5.3 Defects due to Insects
2.5.4 Defects due to Natural Force
2.5.5 Defects due to Seasoning
2.6 Qualities of Good Timber
2.7 Decay of Timber
2.8 Summary

2.1 INTRODUCTION
As you know, Timber is one of the important construction materials. Wood is used as structural
elements in buildings, widely for doors, windows and partitions and find large use through
secondary wood products like plywood, particle boards and laminated boards, etc. . Both hard
and soft woods are in use. As such defects in this construction material for buildings will affect
the structural safety, aesthetic aspects and even functional use including fire protection.
Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 understand the classification of timber, and
 know their properties and the defects in timber along with extensive details concerning the
causes for the defects.

2.2 DEFINITIONS
Let us understand the term timber. The word 'timber' is derived from an old English word
'timbrian' which means to build. Timber, thus denotes wood which is suitable for building or
carpentry or various other Engineering purposes. The Timber is further termed as:
1) Standing Timber
This indicates timber contained in a living tree.
2) Round Timber
This indicates timber which is obtained after felling a tree.
3) Converted Timber
This indicates timber which is sawn and cut into suitable commercial sizes.
2.2.1 Properties
Now, let us understand the properties of timber:
Timber or wood, as a building material, possesses a number of valuable properties such as :
i) low heat conductivity,
ii) amenability to mechanical working,
iii) small bulk density, and
iv) relatively high strength, etc.
2.2.2 Drawbacks
Timber, has its own drawbacks such as:
i) susceptibility to decay and inflammability,
ii) fluctuations in properties due to changes in moisture content,
iii) variations in strength in length and across fibers, etc.
These shortcomings of timber require careful consideration while making use of it.
2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBER
Classification of Trees
Here, let us classify the trees for the Engineering purposes. Trees are classified according
to their mode of growth as below:
2.3.1 Exogenous Trees
These trees increase in bulk by growing outwards and distinct consecutive rings are formed in
the horizontal section of such a tree. These rings are known as annular rings because one such
ring is added every year and these rings are useful in predicting the age of tree. Timber which is
mostly used for Engineering purposes belongs to this category.
i) Conifers : These are also known as ever-green trees and leaves of these trees I do not fall
till new ones are grown. As these trees bear cone-shaped fruits, They are given the name
conifers. These trees yield soft woods.
ii) Deciduous : The trees are also known as broad leaf trees and leaves of these trees fall in
autumn and new ones appear in spring season. Timber for Engineering purposes is mostly
derived from deciduous trees. These trees yield hard woods.
iii) Soft woods and hard woods: Soft woods form a group of ever-green trees. Hard woods
form a group of broad leaf trees. It is quite likely that some variety of soft wood may prove
to be stronger than some variety of hard wood. Examples of soft woods are chir, deodar, fir,
kail, pine, spuce, etc and those of hard woods are babul, mahogany, oak, sal, teak, etc.
iv) Generally hard wood is preferable for structural components. Soft woods are also used
extensively in the building industry for structural components joinery and less sophisticated
purposes like partitions, pelmets, etc. Many products of secondary manufacture like
plywood, particle boards, roofing sheets and laminated board. have also come into wide use.

2.3.2 Endogenous Trees

These trees grow inwards and fibrous mass is seen in their longitudinal sections. Timber from
these trees has very limited Engineering applications. Examples of endogenous trees are bamboo,
cane, palm, etc.

2.4 STRUCTURE OF A TREE

Now, after the classifications, we should know the structure of a tree how it has formed and the
terms in its formation.
A tree basically consists of three parts, viz., trunk, crown and roots.
From the visibility aspect, the structure of a tree can be divided into three categories:
i) Macro-structure
ii) Micro-structure

2.4.1 Macro-structure
The structure of wood visible to the naked eye or at a small magnification is called macro-
structure. Figure 2.1 shows the macro-structure of exogenous tree.
Figure 2.1: Cross-section of an Exogenous Tree
i) Pith: The inner most central portion or core of the tree is called the pith or medulla. It varies in
size and shape for different types of trees. It consists entirely of cellular tissue and it nourishes
the plant in its young age. When the plant becomes old, the pith dies up and decays and sap is
then transmitted by the woody fibres deposited round the pith.
ii) Heart Wood: The inner annual rings surrounding the pith is known as heart wood. It is
usually dark in colour. As a matter of fact, it indicates dead portion of tree and as such, it does
not take active part in the growth of the tree. But it imparts rigidity to tree and hence, it provides
strong and durable timber for various engineering purposes.
iii) Sap Wood: The outer annual rings between heartwood and cambium layer is known as
sapwood. It is usually light in colour and weight. It indicates recent growth and it contains sap.
The annual rings of sap wood are less sharply defined than those of heart wood. It takes active
part in the growth of tree and sap moves in upward direction through it. Sap wood is also known
as alburnum.
iv) Cambium Layer: The thin layer of sap between sap wood and inner bark is known as
cambium layer. It indicates sap which has yet not been converted into sapwood. If the bark is
removed for any reason, the cambium layer gets exposed and the cells cease to be active
resulting in the death of the tree.
v) Inner Bark: The inner skin or layer covering the cambium layer is known as inner bark. It
gives protection to cambium layer from any injury.
vi) Outer Bark: ?be outer skin or cover of the tree is known as outer bark. It is the outermost
protective layer and it sometimes contains cracks and fissures. It consists of cells of wood fibre
and is also known as cortex.
vii) Medullary Rays: The thin radial fibres extending from pith to cambium layer are known as
medullary rays. The function of these rays is to hold together the annual rays of heart wood and
sap wood. These rays are sometimes broken and in some varieties of trees, they are not very
prominent.
2.4.2 Micro-structure
The structure of wood apparent only at great magnifications is called Micro-structure. When
studied under a microscope, it becomes evident that wood consists of living and dead cells of
various sizes and shapes.
The moisture content plays an important part in the use of timber. For example, the moisture
content of a door frame or door shutter should be appropriate for the service conditions. There
are an average of 15% for exterior joinery and an average varying from 10% to 12% for interior
joinery.
Each species of timber has a certain natural durability which is normally greater and never less
for the heartwood than the sap wood. Durability in this context is a measure of the natural
resistance of fungal decay and not to insect attack. It is seen that the heart wood of timber
classified as very durable can be expected to have an approximate life in excess of 25 years even
if in contact with ground. In general, larger pieces would have longer life. It is important to
realise that even species with low natural durability will not decay if the moisture content in
service is kept below 20%. Even a piece of timber given the description of perishable will not
decay if the details and service conditions cause it to have a moisture content in service below
20%. The sap wood of almost all timbers not just soft woods is either perishable or non-durable.
2.5 DEFECTS IN TIMBER
You have understood the tree, its classification and structure. Now let us study the Defects
in timber.
As human body has many defects, timber also have defects. These are grouped into the following
five divisions:
1) Defects due to conversion
2) Defects due to fungi
3) Defects due to insects
4) Defects due to natural forces
5) Defects due to seasoning
Now, let us how various types of defects under each category:
2.5.1 Defects due to Conversion
During the process of converting timber to Commercial form, the following defects may occur:
i) Chip mark
ii) Diagonal grain
iii) Torn grain
iv) Wane
Chip Mark: This defect is indicated by the marks or signs placed by chips on the finished
surface bf timber. They may also be formed by the parts of a planing machine.
Diagonal Grain: This defect is formed due to improper sawing of timber. It is indicated by
diagonal mark on straight grained surface of timber.
Tom Grain: This defect is caused when a small depression is formed on the finished surface of
timber by falling of a tool or so.
Wane: This defect is denoted by the presence of original rounded surface on the manufactured
piece of timber.
2.5.2 Defects due to Fungi
Fungi are minute microscopic plant organisms. They attack timber only when the following two
conditions are satisfied simultaneously.
i) The moisture content of timber is above 12-15%.
ii) There is presence of air and warmth for the growth of fungi.
If any of the above condition is absent, decay of wood due to fungi would not occur. Hence, dry
wood having moisture content less than 12-14% will remain sound for centuries. Similarly, wood
submerged in water win not be attacked by fungi because of absence of air. Following defects
are caused in timber by fungi
i) Blue stain
ii) Brown rot
iii) Dry rot
iv) Heart rot
v) Sap stain
vi) Wet rot
vii) White rot
Blue Stain: Sap of wood is stained to bluish colour by the action of certain type of fungi.
Brown Rot: The term rot is used to indicate decay or disease of timber. Certain types of fungi
remove cellulose compounds from wood and hence, wood assumes the brown colour. This is
known as brown rot.
Dry Rot: Certain types of fungi feed on wood and during feeding, they attack on wood and
convert it into dry powder form. This is known as dry rot. Following are to be noted:
a) Dry rot occurs at places where there is no free circulation of air such as improperly
ventilated basements, rooms, etc.
b) Unseasoned soft woods and sap wood are easily attacked by dry rot.
c) If timber is not properly stored after being felled down, it is liable for the attack of dry rot.
d) It is not necessary to have damp conditions for the development of dry rot.
e) Dry rot is also caused by charring, painting and tarring the unseasoned.timber.
Heart Rot : This is formed when a branch has come out of a tree. In such a case, heart wood is
exposed to the attack of atmospheric agents. Ultimately, the tree becomes weak and it gives out
hollow sound when struck with a hammer.
Sap Stain : Certain types of fungi do not bring about the complete decay of timber. But they
feed on cell contents of sap wood. In doing so, sap wood loses its colour. This is known as sap
stain and it generally occurs where moisture content goes beyond 20% or so.
Wet Rot: Some varieties of fungi cause chemical decomposition of wood of the timber and in
doing so, they convert timber into a greyish brown powder. This is known as wet rot. The
important facts to be remembered are:
a) Alternate dry and wet conditions favour the development of wet rot.
b) If unseasoned or improperly seasoned timbers are exposed to rain and wind, they become
easily liable for the attack of wet rot.
c) To prevent wet rot. well-seasoned timber should be used for exterior work or for
underground work and it should be covered by tar or paint for protection against moisture.
White Rot: This defect is just opposite of brown rot. In this case, certain types of fungi attack
lignin of wood and wood assumes the appearance of a white mass consisting of cellulose
compounds.
2.5.3 Defects due to Insects
Following are the insects which are usually responsible for the decay of timber:
i) Beetles
ii) Marine borers
iii) Termites
Beetles : These are small insects and they cause rapid decay of timber. They form pin-holes of
size about 2 mm diameter in wood. They attack the sap wood of all species of hard wood.
Tunnels are formed in all directions in sap wood by the larvae of these beetles.
The timber is converted into fine flour-like powder. They usually do not disturb the outer shell or
cover. Hence, timber piece attacked by beetles may look sound till it completely fails.
a) Ambrosia Beetles - Pinhole Borer: The standing trees or recently felled logs of several
soft woods can be attacked by Pinhole borer. The attack ceases and dies when the timber
is converted and dried. Attack is more common in sap wood than heartwood. The defect
in timber takes the form of circular holes or short tunnels 0.5 to 3 mm dia mainly across
the grain. The holes are dark stained and contain no bone dust.
b) House Longhorn Beetles (HYLOTRUPES BAJULUS): House Longhorn Beetles are a
risk to soft wood in roof voids or pitched or flat roofs where there is sufficient warmth.
They can attack dry soft wood.
c) Furniture Beetles (ANOBIUM PUNCTATUM) : Furniture Beetles is the most common
insect attack in some places. This can attack dried sap wood and even dried heart wood.
d) Wood Wasps (SIRICIDAE): Wood Wasps attack standing trees and logs. The attack
ceases and dies when the timber is converted and dried. The tunnels formed are circular
and are filled with tightly packed bone dust.
Marine Borers: These are generally found in salty water. Most of the varieties of marine borers
do not feed on wood. But they make holes or bore tunnels in wood for taking shelter. The
diameter and length of these holes may go as high as 25 mm and 60 mm respectively. The wood
attacked by marine borers loses colour and strength. It may be noted at no timber is completely
immune from the attack of marine borers.
Termites: These are popularly known as 'white ants' and they are found in abundance in tropical
and sub-tropical countries. These insect live in a colony and they are very fast in eating away the
wood from core of the cross section. They make tunnels inside the timber in different directions
and usually do not disturb the outer shell or cover. Hence, timber piece attacked by termites may
look sound till it completely fails. Very few good timbers such as teak, sal, etc; can resist the
attack of white ants. Such timbers have certain chemicals in their composition and the smell of
these chemicals is not favourable for termites.
2.5.4 Defects due to Natural Force
The main natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber are two, namely
i) abnormal growth, and
ii) rupture of tissues.
Following, defects are caused by these forces:
i) Burls
ii) Chemical stain
iii) Coarse grain
iv) Dead wood
v) Knots
vi) Shakes
vii) Twisted fibres
viii) Upsets
ix) Water stain
x) Wind cracks
Burls: These are also known as 'excrescences' and they are particularly formed when a tree has
received shock or injury in its young age. Due to such injury, the growth of tree is completely
upset and irregular projections appear on the body of timber.
Chemical Stain: Wood is sometimes discoloured by the chemical action caused to it by some
external agency. This is known as chemical stain.
Coarse Grain: If a tree grows rapidly annual rings are widened. It is know11 as coarse grained
timber and such timber possesses less strength.
Dead Wood: Timber which is obtained from dead standing trees contains dead wood. It is
indicated by light weight and reddish colour.
Knots: These are the bases of branches or limbs which are broken or cut off from the tree. The
portion from which the branch is removed receives nourishment from the stem for a pretty long
time and it ultimately results in the formation of dark, hard rings which are known as knots. As
continuity of wood fibres is broken by knots, they form a source of weakness. Figure 2.2 shows a
typical knot.
Knots are classified on the basis of their size and form. The following Tables 2.1, 2.2 show the
classification of knots on the basis of their size and form and quality.
Table 2.1 : Classification of Knots on the Basis of their Size

S. No. Type of Knot Size

1) Pin knot Diameter upto 6.5 mm

2) Small knot Diameter between 6.5 and 20

3) Medium knot Diameter between 20 mm and 40 mm

4) Large knot Diameter greater than 40 mm

Figure 2.2: Typical Knot

Table 2.2 : Classification of Knots on the Basis of Form and Quality

S. No. Type of Knot Remarks

The fibres of knot are not properly interconnected

with those of surrounding wood. Hence, it can be
1. Dead knot easily separated out from the body of wood. It is not
safe to use wood with such a knot for engineering
purposes.

It is also known as an unsound knot and it is formed

2. Decayed knot
by the action of fungi on wood.

It is also known as a sound knot. It is free from decay

and cracks. It is thoroughly fixed in wood and hence,
it cannot be separated out from the body of wood.
3. Live knot
Presence of such hots makes wood difficult to plane.
However, wood containing such hots can be used for
engineering purposes.

It indicates preliminary stage of dead knot. The fibres

4. Loose knot of this knot are not firmly held in the surrounding
wood.

Round knot Cross-section of this type of knot is either round or

5. oval. It is obtained by cutting the knot at right angles
to its long axis.

6. Tight knot It indicates preliminary stage of live knot. The fibres

of knots are firmly held in the surrounding wood.

Rind Galls : Rind means bark and gall indicates abnormal growth. Hence peculiar curved
swellings found on the body of a tree are known as Rind Galls as shown in Figure 2.3
below. They develop at points from where branches are improperly cut off or removed.

Figure: 2.3: Rid Cab

Shakes: These are cracks which partly or completely separate the fibres of wood. Following are
the different varieties of shakes:
a) Cup Shakes: These are caused by the rupture of tissue in a circular direction as shown in
Figure 2.4. It is a curved crack and it separates partly one annual ring from the

Figure 2.4: Cop Shakes

other. It develops due to non-uniform growth. It may not prove to be harmful, if it covers only a
portion of ring.
b) Heart Shakes: These cracks occur in the centre of cross-section of tree and they extend from
pith to sap wood in the direction of medullary rays as shown in Figure 2.5. These cracks occur
due to shrinkage of interior part of tree which is approaching maturity. Heart shakes divide the
tree cross-section into two to four parts.

Figure 2.4: Heart Shakes

c) Ring Shakes: When cup shakes cover the entire ring, they are known as ring shakes as shown
in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6: Ring Shakes

d) Star Shakes: These are cracks which extend from bard towards the sap wood. They are
usually confined upto the plane of sapwood. They are wider on the outside ends and narrower on
the inside ends as shown in Figure 2.7. They are usually formed due to extreme heat or frost.

Figure 2.7: Star Shakes

e) Radial Shakes: These are similar to star shakes. But they are fine, irregular and numerous.
They usually occur when the tree is exposed to sun for seasoning after being felled down. They
run for a short distance from bark towards the centre, then follow direction of annual ring and
ultimately mm towards pith. Figure 2.8 shows radial shakes.
Twisted Fibres: These are also known as wandering hearts and they are caused by twisting of
young trees by fast blowing wind The fibres of wood are twisted in one

Figure 2.8:Radial Shakes

direction as show in Figure 2.9. Timber with twisted fibres is unsuitable for sawing. It can
however be used for posts and poles in an unsawn condition.
Figure 2.9: Twisted Fibres
Upsets: These are also known as ruptures and they indicate wood fibres which are injured by
crushing or compression. Figure 2.10 shows a timber piece with this defect. Upsets are mainly
due to improper felling of tree and exposure of tree in its young age to fast blowing wind.

Figure 2.10: Upset

Water Stain: Wood is sometimes discoloured when it comes into contact with water. This is
known as water stain and this defect is usually found in converted timber.
Wind Cracks: If wood is exposed to atmospheric agencies, its exterior surface shrinks. Such a
shrinkage results in cracks as shown in Figure 2.11. These are known as wind cracks.

Figure 2.11: Wind Cracks

2.5.5 Defects due to Seasoning

Following defects occur in seasoning process of wood.
i) Bow
ii) Case-hardening
iii) Check
iv) Collapse
v) Cup
vi) Honey-combing
vii) Radial shakes
viii) Split
ix) Twist
x) warp
Bow: The defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the direction of length of timber as
shown in Figure 2.12.

Figure 2.12: Bow

Case-hardening: The exposed surface of timber dries very rapidly. It, therefore, shrinks and is
under compression. The interior surface which has not completely dried is under tension. This
defect is known as case-hardening and it usually occurs in timbers which are placed at the
bottom during seasoning.
Check A check is a crack which separates fibres of wood. It does not extend from one end to the
other.
Collapse: Due to uneven shrinkage, wood sometimes flattens during drying. This is know as
collapse.
Cup: This defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the transverse direction of timber as
shown in Figure 2.13

Figure 2.13: Cup

Honey-combing: Due to stress developed during drying, various radial and circular cracks
develop in the interior portion of timber. Timber thus assumes honey-comb texture and the
defect so developed is known as honey-combing.
Radial shakes: These are radial shakes. They are explained earlier.
Split:; When a crack extends from one end to the other, it is known as a split.
Twist: When a piece of timber has spirally distorted along its length, it is known as twist. It is
shown in Figure 2.14.
Warp: When a piece of timber has twisted out of shape, it is said to have warped.
Figure 2.14: Twist
2.6 QUALITIES OF GOOD TIMBER
So far, we studied the various defects in timber and how the timber is affected. Now let us know
about good qualities of timber.
Following are the characteristics or qualities of a good timber.
Appearance
A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit hard and shining appearance.
Colour
The colour of timber should preferably be dark. Light colour usually indicates timber with low
strength.
Defects
A good timber should be free from serious defects such as dead knots, flaws, shakes, etc.
Durability
A good timber should be durable. It should be capable of resisting the actions of fungi,insects,
chemicals, physical agencies and mechanical agencies. If wood is exposed to the actions of acids
and alkalies for a prolonged period, it is seriously damaged. Weak alkali aid acid solutions
usually do not affect wood to a considerable extent.
Elasticity
This is the property by which timber returns to its original shape when load causing its
deformation is removed. This property of timber would be essential when it is to be used for
hows, carriage shaft, sports gads, etc.
Fibres
Timber should have straight fibres.
Fire Resistance
Timber is a bad conductor of heat. Heat conductivity of wood is low and it depends on various
factors such as porosity, moisture content, surrounding temperature, orientation of fibres, bulk
density, etc.
Hardness
A good timber should be hard, i.e. it should offer resistance when it is being penetrated by
another body. Chemicals present in heart wood and density of wood impart hardness to timber.
Mechanical Wear
A good timber should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical wear or abrasion. This property of
timber would be essential for places where timber would be subject to traffic, e.g. wooden floors,
pavements, etc.
Shape
A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during conversion or seasoning. It should
not how or warp or split.
Smell
A good should have sweet smell. An unpleasant smell indicates decayed timber.
Sound
A good timber should give out a clear ringing sound when struck. A dull heavy sound, when
struck, indicates decayed timber. The velocity of sound in wood is 2 to 17 times greater than that
in air and hence, wood may be considered high in sound transmission.
Strength
A good timber should be sufficiently strong for working as structural member such as joist, beam,
rafter, etc. It should also possess enough strength in direct and transverse directions.
Structure
It should be uniform. Fibres should be firmly added. Medullary rays should be hard and compact.
Annual rings should be regular and they should be closely located.
Toughness
A good timber should be tough, i.e., it should be capable of offering resistance to shocks due to
vibrations. This property of timber would be essential when it is to be used for tool handles, parts
of motor cars and aeroplanes, etc.
Water Permeability
A good timber should have low water permeability which is measured by the quantity of water
filtered through or unit surface area of specimen of wood. Water permeability is greater along the
fibres than in other directions and it depends on initial moisture content, character of cut, type of
wood, width of annual rings, age of wood, etc.
Weathering Effects
A good timber should be able to stand reasonably the weathering effects. When timber is
exposed to weather, its colour normally fades and slowly turns grey. A good timber should show
the least disintegration of the surface under adverse weather conditions such as drying and
wetting, extreme heat, and extreme cold, etc.
Weight
Timber with heavy weight is considered to be sound and strong.
Working Condition
Timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the teeth of saw and should be capable Of
being easily planed or made smooth.
It may be mentioned that the chief factors affecting strength of timber are as follows:
i) abnormalities of growth.
ii) faults in seasoning,
iii) invasion of insects,
iv) irregularities of grain,
v) moisture content,
vi) presence of knots, shakes, etc., and
vii) way in which a timber piece is cut from the log, etc.
2.7 DECAY OF TIMBER
Timber is said to be decayed when it is so deteriorated that it loses its value as an engineering
material. Various defects in timber have been mentioned earlier. When these defects we in
excess, timber decays and such timber is not used for engineering purpose.
Following are the various causes or situations which favour the early decay of timber:
1) Alternate dry and wet conditions.
2) Bad storage or stacking of timber.
3) Fungi which are responsible for developing diseases in timber such as blue stain, brown rot,
dry rot, heart rot, sap stain, wet rot and white rot.
4) Improper seasoning.
5) Insects such as beetles, marine borers, termites, etc.
6) Keeping timber in contact with damp wall, damp earth, etc.
7) Shocks or impacts received cluing young age from natural forces such as fast blowing wind,
etc.
8) Use of timber without taking out sap wood from its structure.
9) Using seasoned timber without applying suitably preservative on its surface.
10) Using unseasoned wood with the application of protective coat of paint or tar.
SAQ 1
i) Enumerate various defects in timber.
ii) Which are the defects caused due to fungi?
iii) What are rots? How are they classified?
iv) What are the different types of shakes?
v) What are the defects caused due to seasoning?
2.8 SUMMARY
Timber is subjected to various defects, like defects due to conversion, due to fungi, due to insects,
due to natural forces and due to seasoning. The timber used for engineering purposes should be
free from defects as far as possible. It is difficult to choose a timber free from defects. However,
care should be taken while selecting the timber for engineering purposes.