Mathematics Internal Assessment

How do different methods of trigonometric functions, polynomials, the

circle and the elliptical equation, used to mathematically model a rugby

ball, affect the degree of accuracy on its volume of revolution?

Session: May 2022

Student Code: hrl044

Contents

1. Introduction 1
2. Theory 1
Modelling the ball 3
3. Calculations 4
3.1. Method A: The ellipse equation 4
3.2. Method B: Polynomials 5
3.3. Method C: Circle equation 9
3.4. Method D: Trigonometric Functions 11
4. Calculating and comparing the volume 14
4.1. Volume: Ellipse equation 14
4.2. Volume: Polynomials 14
4.3. Volume: Circle equation 16
4.4. Trigonometric Function 17
5. Discussion 18
6. Conclusion 19
7. Bibliography 20
1. Introduction

Sports has taken a large proportion of my life, especially basketball and football. During one of my training

sessions, I began to wonder. Why was it that a rugby ball was the only non-spherical ball amongst many ball-

sports? Oddly enough, my mind dove straight towards my favorite topic in the HL Mathematics Applications

and Interpretations course which was integration; the volume of revolution in particular. I continued to ponder

whether there were many, if not any, conventional methods to calculate the volume of this unique shape. What
!
was taught in school was limited to only the volume of spheres which was "
𝜋𝑟 " , and never a shape hereby

known as a prolate spheroid.

The long-established method of deriving the volume of an unusual shape incalculable by known equations, was

through the water displacement method discovered by Archimedes, which states- the volume of water displaced

by an object when submerged, is equal to the volume of the object itself1. I wanted to find a more theoretical

and logical way of determining the volume of uncommon shapes, replacing the obsolete and inconvenient water

displacement method. Thus, this investigation aims to mathematically model a rugby ball within a function

through different approaches, which then will be integrated through solids of revolution: disc method in order to

find the volume of the rugby ball most plausible to be called ‘accurate’. This leads to the development of the

research question, “How do different methods of trigonometric functions, polynomials, the circle and the

elliptical equation, used to mathematically model a rugby ball, affect the degree of accuracy on its volume of

revolution?”.

2. Theory

In Mathematics, volume is defined as an expression of the amount of three-dimensional space enclosed by a

boundary and is measured in cubic units. Volume can be obtained through fixed formulas for regular 3D-shapes

1
Water Displacement Method
1
#
such as cubes- 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 " , cones- " 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, and prisms- 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡. However, conventional

formulated equations generally do not apply to irregular shapes- the ellipsoid being an exception with an
!
equation of " 𝜋𝑎𝑏𝑐, where 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 are the lengths of all its semi-axes. The closest to calculable irregularity is

through the revolution of an irregular plane/shape. Anything else will only be calculable through Archimedes’

principle where if a body at rest in a fluid is completely submerged, the volume of fluid displaced is equal to the

volume of the body- water displacement method.

In the case of this investigation, since a rugby ball is a prolate spheroid, or in simpler terms- a rotational

ellipsoid with two equal semi-diameters, we can derive its volume through the solids of revolution- disk

integration method stating:

%
when 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑉 = 𝜋∫$ (𝑓(𝑥))& 𝑑𝑥

Given that the volume 𝑉of a solid generated by revolving the region bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and the 𝑥-axis on the

interval [𝑎, 𝑏] about the 𝑥-axis (CliffNotes2, 2021).

To apply this concept, we must first dissect the rugby ball into a simpler 2-dimensional model; an ellipse.

180º Minor axis

Axis of revolution
Major axis

Fig. 1. Prolate spheroid: the revolution of a 2-dimensional ellipse about its major axis by 180º.

The mapping of the 2D ellipse allows the visualization of how we can derive its volume. From this, we are able

to understand the conception of plane rotation which creates a 3D solid. However, in order to reach the integral,

2
Volume of Solids of Revolution
2
the function of the curve must be formulated. This leads towards the aim of the investigation which explores the

methods of deriving the function of a modelled rugby ball- trigonometry, polynomials, circle and ellipse

formula, which will be used in comparing each calculated volume.

Modelling the ball

The official rugby ball used in senior international competitions is a size 5 rugby ball, where its longest length

ranges from 280mm-300 mm. In this investigation, I will use my size 5 Gilbert G-TR4000 Training Ball, which

measured 285mm or 28.5 cm in length on the official website from which I bought the ball from3.

To achieve the most accurate scaling of the ellipse shape- one similar to the plotting in fig. 1, I must capture the

rugby ball from a top-down view and remove its background.

Fig. 2. A top-down view of a Size 5 Gilbert G-TR4000 Training Ball that is being modelled.

Given that the precise measurements of its dimensions were already given from the company website, it is

important to note that during the digital plotting of the ball on a cartesian plane, the axis of symmetry cannot be

accurately determined- human judgment. The plotting of the ball will be done digitally on Geogebra4 to ensure

the highest degree of accuracy, albeit with an uncertainty of pixels in its measurements.

3
Rugby Ball Size Guide
4
Geogebra
3
Fig. 3. A superimposed version of a Size 5 Gilbert G-TR4000 Training Ball
(length = 28.5 𝑐𝑚) into Geogebra.

Each unit in the cartesian plane would be equal to 1 cm in order to properly scale and determine its axis of

symmetry.

3. Calculations

3.1. Method A: The ellipse equation

The prolate-spheroid in its simplest terms is essentially identical to an ellipse which is revolved along the major

axis as shown in fig.1. An ellipse has two radii of varying lengths which are the major axis and the minor axis.

The general equation of a horizontal ellipse in standard form centered at origin (0, 0) is as follows:

𝑥& 𝑦&
+ =1
𝑎& 𝑏&

Where 𝑎- the semi-major axis > 𝑏- the semi-minor axis and the foci are on the 𝑥-axis and 𝑦-axis.

In simpler terms, the parameter 𝑎 represents the 𝑥-intercept (when 𝑦 = 0) and the parameter 𝑏 represents the 𝑦-

intercept (when 𝑥 = 0). Referring back to the superimposed rugby model in fig. 3, points A(-14.25, 0) and

B(14.25, 0) are the 𝑥-intercepts and points C(0, 8.88) and D(0, -8.88) are the 𝑦-intercepts. Therefore, the

following parameters 𝑎 and 𝑏 will have the values 𝑎 = 14.25 and 𝑏 = 8.88, representing the semi-major axis

and the semi-minor axis respectively. Substituting the values into the equation will give:

𝑥& 𝑦&
+ =1
14.25& 8.88&

4
In order to integrate through the solids of revolution formula, the equation must be rearranged making 𝑦 & the

subject:

𝑦& 𝑥&
=1−
8.88& 14.25&

𝑥&
𝑦 & = 8.88& D1 − E
14.25&

The function can then be modelled in Geogebra5 through which a comparison between the curve and the

superimposed rugby ball can be made.

Fig. 4. Graphical representation of the ellipse equation made, showing how it models the ball.

As shown in Fig. 4. the derived ellipse equation successfully outlines the general shape of the rugby ball and as

expected, the equation passes all of the axis intercepts. However, upon closer observation, it is evident that

there are minor inaccuracies in quadrant III and quadrant IV, where the curve slightly deviates from the ball.

The flaw is likely to come within the plotting of the model itself- human judgement on its point of symmetry.

As such, an investigation to eliminate the inaccuracies is worth doing, although the current function is quite an

accurate representation with minimal deviations from its original form.

3.2. Method B: Polynomials

This method of deriving a polynomial equation to best fit the modelling of a rugby ball- which then will be

revolved, will utilize the Lagrange interpolation formula. The Lagrange interpolation formula states: the

5
Geogebra
5
polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) of degree ≤ (𝑛 − 1) that passes through the 𝑛 points I𝑥# , 𝑦# = 𝑓(𝑥# )J, I𝑥& , 𝑦& =

𝑓(𝑥& )J, … , (𝑥' , 𝑦' = 𝑓(𝑥' )) and is given as the following:

'

𝑃(𝑥) = L 𝑃( (𝑥)
()#

When expanded:

(+,+! )(+,+" )…(+,+# ) (+,+$ )(+,+" )…(+,+# ) (+,+$ )(+,+! )…(+,+#%$ )

𝑃(𝑥) = (+ 𝑦 + (+
) #
𝑦 + ⋯ + (+
) &
𝑦'
$ ,+! )(+$ ,+" )…(+$ ,+# ! ,+$ )(+! ,+" )…(+! ,+# # ,+$ )(+# ,+! )…(+# ,+#%$ )

(Wolfram Mathworld6, 2022)

The rugby ball in fig. 2. will be horizontally translated along the 𝑥-axis up to which the leftmost point will be

(0, 0)- horizontal translation to the right by 14.25 units, to generate the most effective model. Generally, the

higher the degree of polynomials, the more accurate the modelling will be. However, as for this particular

investigation, I believe that the shape of the rugby ball can be modelled more accurately by using multiple 2nd

degree polynomials or quadratic equations. Through preliminary testing, I have discovered that a singular

polynomial of any degree did not seem to be a befitting or accurate model for the rugby ball. Thus, the upper

half of the rugby ball will be divided into three sections, where each section can be modelled using separate

polynomials to garner the most accurate result- 3 quadratic equations, for 𝑛 = 3 points. I have decided on 3

sections as the topmost curvature of the rugby ball resembles that of a parabola the most, leaving the left and

right sections to be covered by the downward sloping curvature of the sides of a parabola. The Lagrange

interpolation formula is now written as:

(𝑥 − 𝑥& )(𝑥 − 𝑥" ) (𝑥 − 𝑥# )(𝑥 − 𝑥" ) (𝑥 − 𝑥# )(𝑥 − 𝑥& )

𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑦# + 𝑦& + 𝑦
(𝑥# − 𝑥& )(𝑥# − 𝑥" ) (𝑥& − 𝑥# )(𝑥& − 𝑥" ) (𝑥" − 𝑥# )(𝑥" − 𝑥& ) "

I have randomly chosen 3 coordinates per section which will be used in deriving each quadratic equation to fit

the model.

6
Lagrange Interpolating Polynomial
6
Fig. 5. Translated rugby ball model with 3 points per section (left-blue, middle-red, right-green).

We can therefore find the quadratic equations for each section; left 𝑄# (𝑥), middle 𝑄& (𝑥), right 𝑄" (𝑥), using the

coordinates listed below.

𝑄# 𝑖 𝑥 𝑦 𝑄& 𝑖 𝑥 𝑦 𝑄" 𝑖 𝑥 𝑦

A 1 0 0 D 1 8.75 8.09 G 1 24 6

B 2 2.32 4.66 E 2 14.25 8.88 H 2 26.01 4.68

C 3 3.96 5.94 F 3 19.8 7.94 I 3 28.5 0

Table 1: Coordinates of the left Table 2: Coordinates of the middle Table 3: Coordinates of the right
section of the ball. section of the ball. section of the ball.

Each of the quadratic equations will be derived from previously written Lagrange’s interpolation formula for

𝑛 = 3.

Substituting the 3 data points of the left section (given in Table 1), we can therefore develop the quadratic

equation 𝑄# (𝑥) as:

(+,&."&)(+,".01) (+,2)(+,".01) (+,2)(+,&."&)

𝑄# (𝑥) = (2,&."&)(2,".01)
0 + (&."&,2)(&."&,".01) 4.66 + (".01,2)(".01,&."&) 5.94

≈ −0.310135𝑥 & + 2.72813𝑥 + 0

Substituting the 3 data points of the middle section (given in Table 2) to find the quadratic equation 𝑄& (𝑥):

(+,#!.&3)(+,#0.4) (+,4.53)(+,#0.4) (+,4.53)(+,#!.&3)

𝑄& (𝑥) = (4.53,#!.&3)(4.53,#0.4) 8.09 + (#!.&3,4.53)(#!.&3,#0.4) 8.88 + (#0.4,4.53)(#0.4,#!.&3) 7.94

≈ −0.0283263𝑥 & + 0.795142 𝑥 + 3.30124

Substituting the 3 data points of the right section (given in Table 3) to find the quadratic equation 𝑄" (𝑥):

7
(+,&1.2#)(+,&4.3) (+,&!)(+,&4.3) (+,&!)(+,&1.2#)
𝑄" (𝑥) = (&!,&1.2#)(&!,&4.3) 6 + (&1.2#,&!)(&1.2#,&4.3) 4.68 + (&4.3,&!)(&4.3,&1.2#) 0

≈ − 0.271734𝑥 & + 12.9327 𝑥 − 147.866

The three functions above were graphed on the rugby ball:

Fig. 6. Quadratic functions 𝑄! (𝑥), 𝑄" (𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄# (𝑥) modelling the left, middle and right sections of the rugby ball with
the coordinates used in each function.

The three quadratic functions can then be combined into a piecewise relation by restricting the domains for each

function which will only cover the upper half of the rugby ball. The final piecewise relation modelling the

rugby ball is as follows:

−0.310135𝑥2 + 2.72813𝑥 + 0, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3.96

𝑓(𝑥) = 2−0.0283263𝑥2 + 0.795142 𝑥 + 3.30124, 3.96 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 24
−0.271734𝑥2 + 12.9327 𝑥 − 147.866, 24 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 28.5

If a piecewise definition produces more than one result for any value of “𝑥”, it must be called a “piecewise

relation”, not a “piecewise function”7.

When modelled and reflected over the 𝑥-axis, the piecewise relation fully overlaps the rugby ball, albeit with

slight deviations inwards and outwards.

7
Piecewise Functions and Relations
8
Fig. 7. The piecewise relation 𝑓(𝑥) graphical representation.

Unlike the diagram on fig. 4. of method A: ellipse equation, fig. 7. is shown to have slight rigidities and a

‘roughness’ along the continuity between the piecewise relation and its reflection.

3.3. Method C: Circle equation

Since an ellipse- the base shape of a prolate spheroid -is essentially a stretched circle, this investigation will also

examine the circle equation as part of the comparison with other methods.

An equation of a circle represents the position of a circle in a Cartesian plane, where the general standard

equation for the circle is:

(𝑥 − ℎ)& + (𝑦 − 𝑘)& = 𝑟 & ,

given that the circle is centered at (ℎ, 𝑘) with radius 𝑟 (KhanAcademy, 2017).

We can approach this method through 2 different ways: making the minor axis as radius 𝑟 or making the major

axis as radius 𝑟.

Fig. 8. Radius 𝑟! and 𝑟" of the rugby ball with center O.

9
The radius 𝑟# follows the major axis and the radius 𝑟& follows the minor axis. The center (h, k) is applied on the

center O (14.25, 0), making ℎ = 14.25 and 𝑘 = 0.

1. Given the case of using 𝑟# as the radius of the circle, the circle equation is as follows:

(𝑥 − 14.25)& + (𝑦 − 0)& = 14.25&

When expanded:

𝑥 & − 28.5𝑥 + 203.0625 + 𝑦 & = 203.0625

Simplifying the equation and making 𝑦 & the subject:

𝑦 & = −𝑥 & + 28.5𝑥

When the equation above is plotted and modelled on the rugby ball, it is seen that although befitting the full

major axis, the circle has quite a large area of empty space; overestimation of the rugby ball’s coverage as

shown below.

Fig. 9. Circle equation with 𝑟 = 14.25 𝑐𝑚 graphed on the rugby ball.

As seen in fig. 9. the circle equation using 𝑟# covers points A and B as 𝑟# = 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐵. However, it goes far

beyond points C and D which makes it a rather inaccurate model for the rugby ball.

2. Now given the case of using 𝑟& as the radius of the circle, the circle equation is as follows:

(𝑥 − 14.25)& + (𝑦 − 0)& = 8.88&

When expanded:

𝑥 & − 28.5𝑥 + 203.0625 + 𝑦 & = 78.8544

10
Simplifying the equation and making 𝑦 & the subject:

𝑦 & = −𝑥 & + 28.5𝑥 − 124.2081

This case is the opposite of the previous model in fig. 9. where the circle equation covers the minor axis.

Fig. 10. Circle equation with 𝑟 = 8.88 graphed on the rugby ball.

Contrary to 𝑟# , the radius 𝑟& = 𝑂𝐶 = 𝑂𝐷 undervalues the size of the rugby ball. The equation passes through

both points C and D, however does not reach points A and B which leads to an underestimation for the coverage

of the rugby ball. As compared with the previous methods, this method seems to be the most inaccurate being

that the two equations derived either undervalues or overvalues the size of the rugby ball.

3.4. Method D: Trigonometric Functions

The general form of the equation of a trigonometric function is as follows:

𝑦 = 𝐴𝑓[𝐵(𝑥 + 𝐶) + 𝐷]

Where:

• 𝑓 represents the trigonometric function- 𝑠𝑖𝑛 or cos.

• 𝐴 represents the amplitude

• 𝐵 determines the period of the graph- the length of the interval from start to end of a cycle, maximum to

maximum, or minimum to minimum.

• 𝐶 determines the phase shift or the horizontal translation

• 𝐷 determines the vertical shift/translation.

11
(Sterling8, 2016)

Fig. 11. The points following a trigonometric function plotted on 2 rugby balls.

As seen in fig. 11. it is shown that the starting point of the trigonometric function is at 𝑋 = (0, 0). Comparing

with the properties of both sine and cosine functions, we can determine that the rugby ball follows the general

shape of a sine curve:

i
1

t
π 2π

-1

Fig. 12. A general sine curve9 of function 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥).

Moreover, as 1 rugby ball’s major axis is shown to be a half cycle, we can assume that two adjoining rugby

balls will give a full cycle in a sine curve- the purple coordinates in fig. 11, following the outline of the rugby

ball directs the flow of the sine wave. Now from the superimposed model of the rugby ball, we can determine

(values from fig. 11.):

The amplitude from the distance OY which is also equivalent to distance EF:

𝐴 = 8.88

8
Transforming the Graphs of Trigonometry Functions
9
Graph of y = a sin x
12
# &8
When the function 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(𝑥) is stretched horizontally by a scale factor of 7 (giving the period of 7
), the

&8+
function can be written as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴sin ( 7
). The period in fig.11. is shown by the distance between XG which

is 57 units. Therefore, in order to find 𝑏, we can substitute the values into the formula:

2𝜋
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 =
𝐵

Which gives 𝑏 as:

2𝜋
𝐵=
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

2𝜋
=
57

As mentioned before, since the curve starts at point 𝑋 = (0, 0), there is no phase shift nor vertical translation,

thus:

𝐶=0

𝐷=0

From all of the parameters, we can derive the sinusoidal function as:

𝑦 = 8.88𝑠𝑖𝑛[2𝜋(𝑥 + 0) + 0]

2𝜋
𝑦 = 8.88 sin b 𝑥c
57

When modelled on the rugby ball:

Fig. 13. Sinusoidal function modelled on rugby ball(s).

The sinusoidal function is shown to underestimate the outline of the rugby ball- smaller volume.

13
4. Calculating and comparing the volume

The volume can be calculated through the solids of revolution as mentioned in part 2 of this investigation, by

revolving a 2D function, 𝑓(𝑥), rotated 2π rads about the 𝑥-axis given two limits.

4.1. Volume: Ellipse equation

The model in fig. 4. can be simplified in aiding to find the volume by starting the rotation at 𝑥 = 0 to find half

the volume and then doubling the answer. Therefore, the volume integral will be:
#!.&3
𝑉 = 2𝜋 d 𝑦 & 𝑑𝑥
2

Substituting the ellipse equation derived in Method A:

& &
𝑥&
𝑦 = 8.88 D1 − E
14.25&

#!.&3
𝑥&
𝑉 = 2𝜋 d 8.88& D1 − E 𝑑𝑥
2 14.25&

Rearranging and simplifying the integral:

#!.&3
&
𝑥&
𝑉 = 2𝜋(8.88) d D1 − E 𝑑𝑥
2 14.25&

Solving the integral:

#!.&3
𝑥"
𝑉 = 157.7088𝜋 e𝑥 − f
(3)14.25&
2

𝑉 = 157.7088𝜋(9.5 − 0)

= 4706.839671

≈ 4707𝑐𝑚" (𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑚" )

4.2. Volume: Polynomials

−0.310135𝑥2 + 2.72813𝑥 + 0, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3.96

𝑓(𝑥) = 2−0.0283263𝑥2 + 0.795142𝑥 + 3.30124, 3.96 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 24
−0.271734𝑥2 + 12.9327𝑥 − 147.866, 24 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 28.5
14
The final piecewise relation 𝑓(𝑥) in method B consisted of 3 quadratic functions each, is an indicator for the

left, middle and right sections of the rugby ball respectively. In order to find the volume, each quadratic

function will be revolved about the 𝑥-axis, given their respective limits, and then added. Thus, giving the

volume integral as:

&4.3
𝑉 = 𝜋d 𝑓(𝑥)& 𝑑𝑥
2

There will be 3 volumes which must be integrated for each of the quadratic functions 𝑄# , 𝑄& , 𝑄" denoted by

𝑉# , 𝑉& , 𝑉" , therefore:

𝑉 = 𝑉# + 𝑉& + 𝑉"

Calculating 𝑉# :
".01
𝑉# = 𝜋 d (−0.310135𝑥 & + 2.72813𝑥)& 𝑑𝑥
2

𝑉# = 𝜋[0.0192367𝑥 3 − 0.423044𝑥 ! + 2.4809𝑥 " ]".01

2

𝑉# = 𝜋(68.763 − 0)

= 68.763𝜋

= 216.025 𝑐𝑚"

Calculating 𝑉& :
&!
𝑉& = 𝜋 d (−0.0283263𝑥 & + 0.795142 𝑥 + 3.30124)& 𝑑𝑥
".01

𝑉& = 𝜋[0.000160476𝑥 3 − 0.0112617𝑥 ! + 0.148409𝑥 " + 2.62496𝑥 & + 10.8982𝑥]&!

".01

𝑉& = 𝜋(1366.5823 − 90.923)

= 1275.6593𝜋

= 4007.602 𝑐𝑚"

Calculating 𝑉" :
&4.3
𝑉" = 𝜋 d (− 0.271734𝑥 & + 12.9327 𝑥 − 147.866)& 𝑑𝑥
&!

15
𝑉" = 𝜋[0.0147679𝑥 3 − 1.75713𝑥 ! + 82.5384𝑥 " + 1912.31𝑥 & + 21864.4𝑥 ]&4.3
&!

𝑉" = 𝜋(98965.718 − 98883.554)

= 82.164𝜋

= 258.126 𝑐𝑚"

Hence, the volume of the piecewise relation 𝑓(𝑥) is:

𝑉 = 𝑉# + 𝑉& + 𝑉"

𝑉 = 216.025 + 4007.602 + 258.126

= 4481.753

≈ 4482 𝑐𝑚" (𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑚" )

4.3. Volume: Circle equation

The volume of the circle with radius 𝑟# and 𝑟& in fig. 9. and fig. 10. respectively, can be calculated through the

solids of revolution formula. However, to simplify the matter, I will calculate the volume through the use of the

volume of circle formula:

4
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 "
3

I will calculate the volumes using both radii for a more comprehensive comparison of the modelling of the

rugby ball.

1. The volume of circle given 𝑟# = 14.25 𝑐𝑚:

4
𝑉# = 𝜋(14.25)"
3
4
= × 2893.64𝜋
3

= 3858.1875𝜋

= 12120.85351

≈ 12121 𝑐𝑚" (𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑚" )

2. The volume of circle given 𝑟& = 8.88 𝑐𝑚:

16
4
𝑉& = 𝜋(8.88)"
3

4
= × 700.227𝜋
3

= 933.636𝜋

= 2933.1043

≈ 2933 𝑐𝑚" (𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑚" )

4.4. Trigonometric Function

The volume will only utilize the upper half of the model in fig. 13. through limiting the integral by 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤

28.5. The sinusoidal function will then be rotated by 2𝜋 radians about the 𝑥-axis, resulting in the volume of

revolution:
&4.3
𝑉 = 𝜋d 𝑦 & 𝑑𝑥
2

Substituting the sinusoidal function 𝑦 into the integral:

&4.3 &
2𝜋
𝑉 = 𝜋d b8.88 sin b 𝑥cc 𝑑𝑥
2 57

Simplifying the integral:

&4.3
2𝜋
𝑉 = 𝜋d 78.8544 sin& b 𝑥c 𝑑𝑥
2 57

Solving the integral:

&4.3
4𝜋
𝑉 = 𝜋 h39.4272𝑥 − 178.838 sin b 𝑥ci
57 2

𝑉 = 𝜋(1123.6752 − 0)

= 1123.6752𝜋

= 3530.1298

≈ 3530 𝑐𝑚" (𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑚" )

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5. Discussion

Each of the volumes calculated has its own benefits and drawbacks, albeit all are overestimates or

underestimates of the actual volume. From each of the methods, I was able to identify the deviations and thus

determine its accuracy depending on how big of a difference each method had in the production of its volumes.

Method A and B are shown to be very accurate with only a ±300 𝑐𝑚" difference between the two volumes.

Method C on the other hand, produced largely deviated values on both its volumes. The volume using the semi-

major axis as its radius- 𝑉# , is an extreme overestimation of the volume at 12121 𝑐𝑚" compared to the other

methods; A and B being around 4000 𝑐𝑚" and method D being 3530 𝑐𝑚" . The volume using the semi-minor

axis as its radius- 𝑉& , is an underestimation of the volume at 2933 𝑐𝑚" . Method D produced a shape relative to

an ellipse. However, the curve in fig. 13. limited to 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 28.5, when reflected on the 𝑥-axis, will not

produce an accurate elliptical shape as the intersection of the curve and its reflection tapers into a point- where

functions are not continuous like in method A.

Perhaps the most notable distinction, is that Method A is an accurate general assumption of the shape of the

rugby ball, meaning that it can be applied to any rugby ball possessing the standard shape of an ellipse. Method

B however, is more articulate in the conjoining of multiple functions best fit for this particular rugby ball. In fig.

4, method A is shown to have a smaller deviation in the coverage of the rugby ball compared to method B’s

under-coverage of the left and right sections in fig.7. The model in method A is also continuous and smoother

than method B’s slight rigidity in its piecewise relation. Thus, this makes method A the most accurate

representation of the rugby ball.

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6. Conclusion

As the goal of this investigation was to explore the methods of deriving the modelled volume of a rugby ball

and create a comparison to interpret which method is the most effective and closest to accurate. Using the

methods- ellipse equation, Lagrange’s polynomials, circle equation and trigonometric functions, I was able to

meticulously analyze and come into the conclusion of the most applicable method to model the shape of this

particular rugby ball, hence a generalization of its shape and volume. Methods A and B have successfully

produced volumes which minimally strayed from each other, while being able to distinguish between the more

accurate representation through the modelled figures of each method. I was able to capture the shape of each

curve in conjunction to the actual rugby ball which resulted in the conclusion of the favored generalization of

the rugby ball function- being method A: the ellipse equation.

However, there were limitations in this investigation as each volume is only a theoretical mathematical

representation of the rugby ball where the actual volume was not provided by the manufacturer; resulting in the

inability to calculate the percentage error. The flaw being deviations in the manual modelling of the rugby ball

may not produce an accurate result- human judgement on the center of the rugby ball and its axes of symmetry.

Perhaps, I could’ve extended this investigation by statistically calculating the deviations in the models of each

method using precise points along the rugby ball, which will enhance the mathematical analysis on the validity

of each method. The existence of an uncertainty in pinpointing each coordinate on a pixelized representation of

the rugby ball (a digitalized image), may have altered the values obtained from the calculations. For further

investigations, I could delve deeper and use different rugby balls with differing lengths and model them to

determine a more accurate result. Additionally, it could be intriguing to compare the calculations above with

Archimedes’ water displacement method.

19
7. Bibliography

Archer, Branden, and Eric W. Weisstein. “Lagrange Interpolating Polynomial.” Wolfram MathWorld,
https://mathworld.wolfram.com/LagrangeInterpolatingPolynomial.html.

Bourne, Murray. “Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions.” Interactive Mathematics,

https://www.intmath.com/trigonometric-graphs/1-graphs-sine-cosine-amplitude.php.

“Calculus.” CliffsNotes, https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/calculus/calculus/applications-of-the-

definite-integral/volumes-of-solids-of-
revolution#:~:text=If%20the%20axis%20of%20revolution,its%20area%20times%20its%20thickness.

Ford, Whit. “Piecewise Functions and Relations.” MathMaine, 21 Apr. 2014,

https://mathmaine.com/2014/04/21/piecewise-functions-and-
relations/#:~:text=Piecewise%20definitions%20can%20include%20any,do%20not%20wish%20them%20
to%E2%80%A6.

“Geogebra Classic.” GeoGebra, https://geogebra.org/classic.

“Rugby Ball Buyers Guide: Club Rugby, School Rugby.” Gilbert Rugby,
https://www.gilbertrugby.com/pages/rugby-ball-buyers-guide.

“Rugby Ball Guide.” World Rugby Shop, https://www.worldrugbyshop.com/blogs/blog/rugby-ball-

guide#:~:text=They%20vary%20in%20size%20but,%2D%20880mm%20(34.6%20inches).

Smith, Chase. “Water Displacement Method.” Study.com, 2021, https://study.com/learn/lesson/water-

displacement-method-formula.html.

Sterling, Mary Jane. Transforming the Graphs of Trigonometry Functions, 27 Mar. 2016,
https://www.dummies.com/article/academics-the-arts/math/trigonometry/transforming-the-graphs-of-
trigonometry-functions-187102/.

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