11 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Disciplines and Ideas

in the Social Sciences
Quarter 1 – Module 5 - 7 :
Analyze the basic concepts and principles of the major
social science theories;
a) Structural - functionalism b) Marxism c) Symbolic Interaction

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What I Need to Know

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCY:

Analyze the basic concepts and principles of the major social science theories;
a. Structural-functionalism
b. Marxism
c. Symbolic Interaction

Discipline and Ideas in the Social Sciences is one of the subjects that
you need to take under HUMSS, which stands for Humanities and Social Sciences.
This lesson focuses on the study of Structural Functionalism, Marxism, and
Symbolic Interaction.
This module was designed and written for you in order to help you
understand the basic concepts and principles of the major social science ideas. To
do this, you are required to undergo a series of learning activities to complete each
learning competency. Each lesson includes information sheets, tasks and activity
sheets. You need to perform each activity by yourself.
The module has 3 lessons, namely:
a. Structural Functionalism
b. Marxism
c. Symbolic Interactionism

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

• Explain the theories on Structural Functionalism.
• Analyze the basic concepts and principles of the structural functionalism
theory.
• Appreciate one’s personal and social experiences using the theories structural
functionalism.

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WHAT’S NEW
LESSON 1: STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
Structural functionalism or simply functionalism, is essentially a sociological
theory that revolves around the notion that a society is composed of a system of
interconnected parts that have their own particular functions.
Social structures formed among groups or institutions are referred to as
macrostructures, which include religion, education, tradition, and culture. On the other
hand, social structures established among individuals or within groups that result in
individual interactions are called microstructures.
The effects of the social structures or their purpose are called social functions.
Every social structure has a corresponding social function. This relationship between
social structures and social functions are the parts of the system which structural
functionalism identifies.

KEY CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

A manifest function is the predicted, intended, expected, and knowable effect of
a social structure. An example of which is when people go to church, in order to pray
and to hear mass.
A latent function is the unintended outcome of social structure. So, if the manifest
function of going to church is to pray and hear mass, its latent function is to gather
people together in one place to reinforce the sense of community.

MANIFEST and LATENT Dysfunctions

A manifest dysfunction is the predicted, expected, and knowable disruptions of a
social structure. For example, a large gathering of people such as concerts and other
events disrupts traffic flow within the vicinity of the event, even though it was not
intended to do so.
A latent dysfunction is the unpredicted and unexpected disruptions of social
structures. For example, there are costumers who usually take pictures of food in social
media. But since these customers are not the only ones doing it, the average time spent
by customers in their tables will increase. The latent dysfunction in this example is that
the next costumers will have an increased waiting period. Manifest and latent
dysfunctions bring about negative effects or outcomes.
For the sociologist, studying manifest and latent functions is a way to promote the
benefits of such functions and further develop social structures. But because manifest
and latent dysfunctions are contrary to the idea of systems in society, sociologists focus
more on the dysfunctions to promote social stability and solidarity. Understanding
manifest and latent dysfunctions help sociologists assess risks and prepare accordingly.
Such assessments and preparations can be in different fields and can be useful in various
fields and professions.

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IMPORTANT THEORISTS
Auguste Comte
Auguste Comte provided an analysis of social evolution through his Law of Three
Stages. Comte provided a theory of society and man’s cognitive progression from
religious and abstract concepts to a scientific perspective. Comte’s ideas are considered
as the precursor to structural functionalism, as he identified tradition and other social
structures as elements in shaping the society. The Law of Three Stages itself is a critique
of the social structures and of how humans were shaped by progressive thinking.

Herbert Spencer
Herbert Spencer is known as the first sociological functionalist. His comparison
of society to the human body is the overarching idea of structural functionalism.
According to Spencer, each social structure is like a body part---it has a purpose and a
function in the overall well-being of the society. He also compared the way organism
evolved to how it handles constant problems.

Talcott Parsons
Talcott Parsons was an American sociologist known as one of the primary
contributors to the development of structural functionalism. Parsons identified the
different systems which make up the structure of the society, which he called systems
levels. The systems he expounded on were the following: the cultural system, social
system, personality system and biological system. All these system work and interact
with each other in some level to provide structure to the society.
The cultural system is the structure that the society generated throughout history
so that people can socialize and live together as a community. The social system is
understood as the roles people have in society. The personality system refers to how
individuals affect society through their personalities, attitudes, behaviors, beliefs and
other characteristics. Lastly, the behavioral or biological system is the physical body of
the individual and the environment where he or she lives in.

Davis and Moore

Kingsley Davis (1908–1997) and Wilbert Moore (1914–1987) were American
sociologists known for the functionalist theory of stratification or Davis- Moore
hypothesis. Their hypothesis suggest that social inequalities are necessary so that society
benefits from them---from the poor, the middle class and the rich.

To arrive at such a hypothesis, Davis and Moore explored the dynamics of

hierarchical structure such as corporations, governments, and the military, whose
structural organizations reflect that of a pyramid----the head (decision-maker and
highest paid) is at the top, the managers and supervisors (both receiver and provider of
commands and receive a medium pay) at the middle and the workers (receiver of
command and lowest paid) at the base.

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In order for the organization structure to function properly, the positions in this
hierarchical structure are accompanied by necessary qualifications and experiences so
that competent individuals would fill the positions. Any deviation from these
qualifications would undermine the entire organization. Thus, individuals with higher
education, skill, experience and training are placed on top of those who are less
qualified. Since those at the top enjoy higher social status and higher salaries, those at
the bottom are the motivated to acquire the necessary qualifications to eventually be
placed on top as well. Hence, individuals who understand stratification would invest
their time to further their education and hone their skills while getting experiences. In
such a case, inequality functions and dysfunctions.

Robert Merton
Robert Merton (1910–2003) was an American sociologist who is also a key
contributor to the functionalist theory of society. Specifically, he was the one who
developed the concepts of manifest and latent functions and dysfunctions.

A student of Parsons in Harvard University, Merton saw his mentor’s functionalist

perspective as being too theoretical and overarching. So, he aimed to develop a theory,
which he called middle range theory. This allows some level of experimentation to
ground theories more to reality. In order to do this, he said that a middle range theory
should have limited assumptions and hypothesis, which would allow for some testing.
It should also have a limited range of data to research and interpret. This was how he
came up with the different descriptions of functions.
Additionally, Merton focused on dysfunction as it opposes the idea of functional
unity, which presupposes that everything works optimally all the time and that
distortions exist in society. Because dysfunction is dependent upon who is asked, it is
called valued term. For example, a vehicular accident is seen as a dysfunction, but can
also be an opportunity for a tow truck driver or junkyard dealer to gain profit (the former
by towing wrecked vehicles, the latter by recycling the parts of the vehicles).

Almond and Powell

Gabriel Almond (1911–2002) and Bingham Powell (born 1942) are American
political scientists who applied structural functionalist theories in comparative politics.
Before the theory of structural functionalism was introduced in political science, states
were studied in a manner that they had the same systems upon which they operated on
and were subject to the same laws and production processes. Almond and Powell,
however, argued that the study of political systems of different states must be done
contextually. They highlighted the need to understand the institutions through which
political systems were allowed to function. Finally, the particular function and the
historical context which develop and established this institution must also be considered
in conducting research.

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Aside from studying the interrelationships of the function of institutions in a
political system, Almond and Powell also recognized the function of the political system
itself on society. They highlighted the function of the political system as political
socialization, recruitment, and communication. Political socialization is the means by
which proper civic conduct, duties and good citizenship are promoted and societal
values and beliefs are passed on to the younger generation. On the other hand,
recruitment is the way by which political systems attract the interest of the public
through participation in debates and other engagements. Lastly, communication is the
means by which society learns about the issues and affairs of the state.

ESSENTIAL LEARNING

The main idea in structural functionalism is that the society is made up of different
components such as institutions, services, and people that work together and allow the
society to function. As body parts have specific functions, functionalism implies that all
structure in society have their own purpose and specific functions.

Structural functionalism
Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is “a framework for building
theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote
solidarity and stability.”

The structural-functional approach is a perspective in sociology that sees society

as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.
Education, for example, has several important functions in a society, such as
socialization, learning, and social placement.

What I Can Do

Explain the major events that occurred and its contribution which led to the
emergence of the social science disciplines.

Assessment

Direction: Read each item carefully and write T f the statement is true, and write F if
the statement is false. Write your answers in your activity notebook.
_____1. Microstructures are the social structures formed among groups or
institutions.
_____2. Social functions are the effects of social structures or their purpose.
_____3. Macrostructures are social structures that were established by the individual or
within a group that resulted in individual interactions.

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_____4. Structural functionalism is the essential sociological theory that revolves
around the notion that a society is composed of a system of interconnected parts that
have their own particular function.
_____5. Manifest function is the predicted, intended, and expected effect of a social
structure.
_____6. Structural functionalism is the same as the human body parts that have specific
functions, functionalism implies that all structures in society have their own purpose
and specific functions.
_____7. Addressing elders with respect, as an example of a macrostructure, patterns and
shapes the younger generation to promote social values.
_____8. When one of the parts of the society does not perform properly, the entire
society could not function well.
_____9. Political socialization is a means by which proper civic conduct, duties and
good citizenship are promoted and societal values and beliefs are passed on to the
younger generation.
_____10. Recruitment is the way by which political systems attract the interest of the
public through participation in debates and other engagements.
_____11. The unpredicted and unexpected disruptions of social structures is called latent
dysfunction.
_____12. Various parts of the society are interrelated.
_____13. Davis and Moore aimed to develop a theory, which they called middle range
theory, that would be more focused and manageable.
_____14. Theorists respond to the social phenomena that pervade society.
_____15. Communication is the means by which society learns about the issues and
affairs of the state.

Glossary
Dysfunctions – abnormality or impairment in the function of a specified bodily
organ or system.
Functionalism – a viewpoint of the theory of the mind, and wherein mental states
are constituted solely by their functional role, such as their causal relations
with other mental states, sensory inputs and behavioral outputs.
Precursor – a person or thing that comes before another of the same kind.
Recruitment – the action of finding new people to join an organization or support
a cause.
Subsist – maintain or support oneself, especially at a minimal level.

Additional Activities

Draw an example showing the main concept of Structural Functionalism.

Draw it in a separate paper and attach it to your quiz/activity notebook.

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What I Need to Know
LESSON 2: MARXISM

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

• Explain the theories on Marxism.
• Analyze the basic concept and principles of Marxism theories
• Appreciate personal and social experiences using the theories of Marxism.

What’s In

The main purpose of structural functionalism is that the parts and its functions,
are interconnected to the other parts as a big factor for the maintenance or continuity to
function properly as a structured social system. Thus, each institution has a part to play
in maintaining the balance of the larger structure as a whole. This assumption can also
relate to the parts similar to that found in an organism, an example of which is the
digestive system (Vincent 2001).

What’s New

MARXISM
Marxism is a sociological, political, and economic philosophy that is based on the
ideas and theories of Karl Marx (1818–1883). To understand the ideas of Karl Marx,
the historical backdrop from which he lived---during the Revolution of the 19th century
– must be considered.
Before the advent of the Industrial Revolution, the primary source of living in
many European countries was farming or agriculture-related work. However, with the
rise of factories, such character changed, which caused farmers to abandon their fields
to become factory workers. The introduction of machines enabled the rapid
advancements in the production process, which allowed faster trade and consumption
of goods. This development provided factory owners with profits that enabled them to
invest in factory expansion. This cycle of production and consumption continued to
create an economy, which became known as industrial capitalism.
Industrial capitalism created two classes in society, which Marx termed as the
bourgeoisie or the factory owners or capitalist and the proletariat or the industrial
workers or labors. The bourgeoisie controls the production (factories, machines, and
land), while the proletariat, who does not have access to such means of production,
exchanges labor for wages.

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KEY CONCEPTS IN MARXISM

SOCIAL INEQUALITY
In a capitalist society, oppression and exploitation are among the social
inequalities that exist between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Marx argued that the
profit from goods should be equally divided among the laborers since they are the ones
who work to produce such goods. But in reality, they are given low wages and are often
asked to work in terrible working conditions. For Marx, capitalists steal by taking the
profit for themselves, while leaving the workers with salaries disproportionate to the
work that they provide.

Class Conflict
Class conflict or class struggle arises from the oppression of the proletariat by the
bourgeoisie. Such oppression happens whenever a society has a stratified and
hierarchical class division, and it is more evident in a capitalist society where the
manipulative force of capitalism creates tension between the classes.

Marx advocated for a revolutionary consciousness to fight back against the

capitalist oppressors. At the end of the revolution, a communist society will then be
established, which for Marx, will make the citizens happy as they will be treated equally.
A communist society is characterized by a classless society having common ownership
of property and resources (means of production). Private property and profit-based
economy are replaced by public ownership and control.

Important Theorists

Marx and Engels

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) were German philosophers and
political scientists, who are regarded as the fathers of Marxist theory. Marx and Engels
were friends, and they collaborated many times. Their most notable work together was
Communist Manifesto.

Marx and Engels presented in the communist manifesto their core ideas in a way
that the proletariat could easily grasp. They laid out their thoughts in a simple and
systematic manner which does not require the reader to be a part of the academic elite
in order to understand. The communist manifesto provides a sociological perspective in
the understanding of history. For Marx and Engels, history is determined by the class
struggles and conflicts between the oppressor (bourgeoisie) and the oppressed
(proletariat). The bourgeoisie, who controls and monopolizes the means of production,
remains in power because of wealth accumulated from the profits of production. The
proletariat, who contributes much to the profit of the bourgeoisie, remains as mere
workers.

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Moreover, the communist manifesto points to an organized proletariat class who
would revolt against the bourgeoisie by amassing political power. This is the aim of
communism as argued by Marx and Engels – that workers unite to overthrow the
bourgeoisie supremacy and ultimately allow the proletariat freedom from subjugation.
Thus, communism would prevent oppressors from exploiting the working class in order
to gain profit.

Gordon Childe
Vere Gordon Childe (1892–1957) was an Australian archeologist and philologist.
Childe used Marxist economics as a tool in distinguishing periods of prehistory and in
tracing the evolution of Western civilization.

Production is central to Marxist economics because it is the means by which

human living is maintained and sustained. It is through the process of production where
the bourgeoisie and the proletariat engage with one another and where exploitation and
oppression occur. Childe classified periods of prehistory through their capacity to utilize
the environment in food production processes. He maintained that civilizations in those
periods developed and evolved as they gradually took control of their food production
processes. To sustain their growing population, hunter-gatherer civilizations turned into
farming and by doing so created different social classes in the process. The emergence
of social classes was primarily caused by the surplus in food production. Surplus
allowed other classes in society to expend efforts in other ventures such as metallurgy.
Just as machine enabled the expansion of the industrial revolution, new technologies
such as metallurgy allowed for sociocultural and economic revolutions in the prehistoric
ages.

Theodor Adorno
Theodor Adorno (1903–1969) was a German philosopher and sociologist. His
most notable work, Dialectics of Enlightenment (1944), was made in collaboration with
Marx Horkheimer (1895-1973) who was also a German philosopher. In this
collaborative work, capitalist ideology was seen as focusing on commodities so that
consumers would find necessity in buying material goods. Marx called this effect of
capitalist ideology as fetishism of commodities. Fetishism commodities places value on
consumerist goods by making the masses want and desire to consume them. Taking the
argument of Marx, Adorno applied this to the state of capitalism in his time. Adorno
argued that commodity fetishism has reached beyond material goods and has touched
different social institutions and even academic disciplines. He explained that the process
by which fetishism takes hold is through reification, or the subjection of human beings
to capitalist ideology. Human minds are conditioned to accept ideology without a second
thought and apply capitalist ideology in their daily lives. Thus, ideology becomes the
driving force in all human actions, as it provides the desire and the objects of desire
while taking for granted the desire for these objects were only made by the capitalist
system.

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Slavoj Zizek
Slavoj Zizek (born 1949) is a Slovenian philosopher and a sociologist. Zizek
expounded on ideology and how it directly affected everyday reality. He argued that
reality is constructed by ideology itself.
For Zizek, ideology is reflected in ordinary language. Zizek explains that ideology
blankets society with beliefs that paradoxically have no believers. The Slovenian
philosopher further elaborates on how ideology is used by the capitalist to extract more
profit from the masses; however, Zizek points out that this extraction is now done in a
more subtle way. For example, some of today’s advertisements will say that there will
be beneficiaries (who are in desperate need of help) for every consumerist item that is
sold. The belief is that consumers do not mind buying expensive products if part of the
profit will be donated to a noble cause. For Zizek, such capitalist strategy is how
ideology works. A person knows for a fact that a certain object has a particular value
that may or may not be equal to its advertised value; however, he or she still purchases
it because every day ideology has made him or her believe that the object is necessary
in everyday living.
ESSENTIAL LEARNING
One of the most striking arguments against Marxism which captured the patronage
of a significant number of scholars and social advocates is the pervading issue of social
inequality that is being perpetuated by systems of oppression based on capitalistic
values. More than 167 years after its conception and despite the criticisms against it,
Marxism still appears to be influential because the social realities that it portrayed are
still prevalent. Today, Marxism remains as a critical voice against forms of oppression
relating to economics and power.
Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a materialist
interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to
understand class relations and social conflict as well as a dialectical perspective to view
social transformation.
The political and economic philosophy of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in
which the concept of class struggle plays a central role in understanding society's
allegedly inevitable development from bourgeois oppression under capitalism to a
socialist and ultimately classless society.
The key characteristics of Marxism in philosophy are its materialism and its
commitment to political practice as the end goal of all thought. The theory is also about
the hustles of the proletariat and their reprimand of the bourgeoisie.
Marxism was a critique of capitalism. Its original purpose was to steer society
away from the abusive, oppressive forms of class capitalism that were prevalent in the
19th century and reassert more universal liberal principles.

What’s More

What specific experience in your life do you think, reflected the basic principles
of Marxism?

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Assessment

Direction: Read each item carefully and write T f the statement is true and write F if
the statement is false.

____1. The purpose of Marxism is to treat the economic status equally for every
individual in the society.
____2. Marxism delves into the relationship of the people with one another in the
context of production.
____3. Bourgeoisie refers to the owner of the factory or the capitalist.
____4. During the industrial revolution, the farmers improved the method of farming in
the society.
____5. Communist society is characterized by a classless society having common
ownership of property.
____6. The two industrial capitalism created in the society are bourgeoisie and
proletariat.
____7. Karl Marx advocated for a revolutionary consciousness to fight back against the
capitalist oppressors.
____8. Class Conflict arises from the oppression of the proletariat by the
bourgeoisie.
____9. The use of machinery equipment in the factory is an example of industrial
revolution.
____10. In the theory of Marxism, the capitalists are also the laborers or the ones who
work for the company.
____11. The theory of Karl Marx is in favor of the owner of the company.
____12. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels’ core ideas were to have an unequal economic
status between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.
____13. Industrial capitalism is the cycle of production and consumption continued to
create the economy.
____14. The communist society likes to have a common ownership of the property and
its resources.
____15. Social injustice, according to Marx, is to give the laborer a low wage
disproportionate to the work they provide.

Glossary
Fetishism – excessive attention or attachment to something
Grasp – to seize and hold by or as if by clasping with the fingers or arms.
Oppressors – to burden with cruel or unjust impositions or restraints; subject to a burdensome or harsh
exercise of authority or power.
Reification – to consider or make (an abstract idea or concept) real or concrete
Struggle – to contend resolutely with a task, problem, etc.; strive
Subjugation – the action of bringing someone or something under domination or control.

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What I Need to Know

LESSON 3: SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

• Explain the theories on Symbolic Interactions.
• Analyze the basic concept and principles of symbolic interaction theory.
• Appreciate personal and social experiences using the symbolic interactions
theory.

What’s In

Marxism is the theory of Karl Marx which says that society's classes are the cause
of struggle and that society should have no classes. An example of Marxism is replacing
private ownership with co-operative ownership.

What’s New

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

Symbolic interactionism is a theory on society that focuses on the individual’s

interaction with objects and other people. It perceives reality through the compositions
of social interactions and the understanding of the meanings of these social interactions
that provide a perspective on social order and social society. The basic premise of
symbolic interactionism is that behavior is influenced and can only be examined through
social interactions. Consider the following, for instance. The Filipino word for window
is often thought of as bintana, which came from the Spanish word ventana. For
Spaniards, the window is associated with ventilation, which allows cold air to circulate
around the house and the hot air to get out. However, for the Filipino the formal word
for window is not bintana but dungawan. For the Filipinos, the window is associated
with something to look outside on; but more than that, the dungawan is a place where
Filipinos could socialize at. Typically, an individual opens his or her window to see the
neighborhood, to greet people passing by, and to learn about the latest news in town.

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Key Concepts in Symbolic interaction

Interaction-based Meaning
It can be said that meaning is not monopolized by
a single person or perspective---something can have
different meanings as there are different perspectives.
Actions are determined by the meanings people’s
association of meanings. As meaning changes, so does
society. Even interactions with the environment are
only done through the meanings assigned to them. A https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/47vPTpSI2puFy IA
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paper. Symbolic interaction sees reality not just as
meanings but sees meanings as constitutive of reality itself. Hence, culture, science,
society, and mathematics to name a few are only as real as the meanings assigned to
them.

Human Agency
Humans are perceived to be active social actors who willingly negotiate their roles
and identities within and through the system. This concept emphasizes the capacity of
humans to project and plan their actions based on certain goals formed for the betterment
of their conditions. Hence, despite the impositions of a greater structure, the individual
can be seen as an active player in the interpretation and modification of the structure’s
rules and processes.

IMPORTANT THEORISTS
Herbert Blumer
Herbert Blumer (1900–1987) was an American sociologist who coined the term
symbolic interactionism. A central idea to Blumer’s works is that social reality is in a
continuous process of creation. This idea stems from the notion that social interactions
happen in a society at a given place and time. It follows that social reality is in a constant
process of creation and reinvention.

Symbolic interactionism, for Blumer, has three basic premises:

1. “Humans act toward things on the basis of the basis of the perceived goal.
An individual ascribes a meaning to a particular goal and this affects his or
her actions toward achieving it.

2. “the meanings of things derive from social interaction”. The meanings

ascribed by individuals to things are formed from their interaction with
society. In a sense, the individual accepts the meanings of things given by
society.

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3. “These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretative
process used by the person in dealing with the things he or she encounters.”
Meanings are in a constant flux; they are evolving each time interaction
takes place and each time an individual reflects on these interactions.
Although the interpretation of things and the corresponding meanings
produced are internal and subjective, elements which formed the meanings
are highly social and come from interactions. As such, the creation of
meaning requires, in some level, conformity to the generally established
meaning assigned by society.

In social perspective, meaning is subject to negotiation in order to reach a

consensus of a mutually understood meaning. Adjustments to personally derived
meanings must be made in order to address another individual in a social interaction.
This adjustment is done through the process of role play. Role play, in this context, is
the ability to perceive the object of conversation through the eyes of the other. In doing
so, it allows for a better consensus on what the object means, thereby allowing a better
understanding of what the general meaning of the object is. Without a consensus, the
object would remain distant to both individuals in a dialog, inasmuch as it becomes a
limiting force in the force in the process of understanding each other.

George Herbert Mead

George Herbert Mead (1836–1931) was an American sociologist, philosopher,
and psychologist, considered as one of the founders of social psychology. Mead
developed a theory of the social self, which interprets the self as emerging from social
interactions. Mead’s three activities are language, play, and games.

Language allows communication through which attitudes, opinions, emotions,

and ideas are conveyed between individuals. Language also allows individuals to
respond to each other using symbols, gestures, and sounds. For Mead, the use of
language enables the individual to understand and internalize the opinions of others
about him or her. Play, on the other hand, allows an individual to act in another role or
capacity, or what is commonly referred to as role play. Role play is important as it makes
the individual confine his or her actions by the expected roles assigned to him or her.

Play enables the self to internalize his or her roles and assume the expectations
derived from such roles. Lastly, games allow an individual to act within the confines
imposed by the rules of activity. They also allow an individual to know when to bend
the rules or to completely break them. Games allow an individual to internalize and
acquire knowledge of societal rules, which are essential in order to live in a society.

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Charles Horton Cooley
Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) was an American sociologist whose main
contribution in the field was the study of primary groups. He coined and defined primary
group as the first group where a person belongs, and where the individual develops his
or her ideas, beliefs, values, and self. Based on the given definition, one will
instinctively think of the family as his or her primary group. The family, being the first
primary group, influences the way a person thinks and the way he or she relates to others.

Cooley’s most famous theory of self is the looking-glass self in which the self is
understood as that which is formed from interactions, such as those done with the
primary group. The looking-glass self is the process by which self-consciousness
emerges through the lens of the other.

Harold Garfinkeld
Harold Garfinkeld (1917–2011) was an American sociologist and
ethnomethodologist. Unlike other sociologist theories, the aim of ethnomethodology is
not the analysis of society, but the methods, procedures, and practices by which
members of society use to make sense out of the world. Ethnomethodology is sometimes
related to the theory of common sense, as its main focus of study is the everyday
interactions of people through the use of symbols, language, gestures, and emotions,
which enable the construction of a meaningful social order. An example of an everyday
act which requires only common sense is having a telephone conversation. Because
there are no visual cues to help, the flow or delivery of communication is key to have a
proper conversation.

Unlike traditional sociology, ethnomethodology is not an analysis of society. It

does not provide a theory by which the society can achieve social stability or social
unity. Rather, it allows social stability, unity and order by looking into society’s
individual members and how each one performs. One method used in
ethnomethodology is termed as first time through, which refers to the practice of
describing social activities as if being witnessed for the first time.

The purpose of the first time through method is to allow the observer to be better
in framing social activities, as it would require intense reflection on his or her part to
actually conduct. Deviation from social norms elicits bewilderment, and in most cases,
a negative response from the other. For Garfinkeld, social order is constructed using
common sense or the consensually accepted practices of society for given social
interactions and events. As such, social order is not something which naturally occurs,
but is more of a social accomplishment. Hence, members of society must be taught
common rules agreed upon and these rules must be practiced in their daily lives. When
a common-sense rule works, then it is repeated to achieve social order.

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ESSENTIAL LEARNING

The theory of symbolic interactionism relies heavily on the qualitative approach

to research, as it aims to make sense of human behavior through the social circles that
an individual interacts with. The theory is highly relevant in providing context to how
we acquire our behaviors and the importance of social groups in the formation of the
self.

Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that develops from practical

considerations and alludes to people's particular utilization of dialect to make images
and normal implications, for deduction and correspondence with others. The view of
social behavior emphasizes linguistic or gestural communication and its subjective
understanding, especially the role of language in the formation of the child as a social
being.

Symbolic interactionism is viewing society as composed of symbols that people

use to establish meaning, develop views about the world, and communicate with one
another. We are thinking beings who act according to how we interpret situations.

What’s More

What specific experience in your life that shows the basic principles of the
symbolic interaction theory?

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Assessment

Direction: Read each item carefully and put your answer on the space provided before
the number. Write T f the statement is true and write F if the statement is false.

____1. Symbolic interaction cannot be applied in other subject areas.

____2. As time goes by window is not only for ventilation but also for socializing with
others.
____3. Communication and interactions defined social reality.
____4. Games are one way of socializing with others. This allows an individual to
internalize and acquire knowledge of societal roles.
____5. As humans, it is natural for each individual to have different reactions to the
things surrounding them.
____6. . Reactions can sometimes cause conflict.
____7. Interactions are important between people, especially when providing meaning
to things around us.
____8. Charles Horton Cooley is a German sociologist.
____9. Interaction with the things around us are based on the society we grew
up.
____10 Roleplaying enables the self to internalize his or her roles and assume the
expectations of such roles.
____11. Social networks are responsible for creating the social self.
____12. Symbolic interactionism is viewing society as composed of symbols that people
use to establish meaning, develop views about the world, and communicate with
one another.
____13. Individuals are capable of making their own realities apart from structural
pressures.
____14. Symbolic interaction is the social dynamics of people on how they give
meaning to things.
____15. Ventana is a Spanish word which means ventilation or allows the cold air to
circulate inside the house and the hot air to get out.

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Glossary

Consensus – the opinion of the majority

Ethnomethodology – the sociological study of the rules and rituals underlying
ordinary social activities and interactions.
Interactions – the direct effect that one kind of particle has on another
Perceive – to become aware of, know, or identify by means of the senses:
Role – the rights, obligations, and expected behavior patterns associated with a
particular social status.
Symbolic – characterized by or involving the use of symbols:

References
Alejandria-Gonzalez, Maria Carinnes P., and Elizabeth T. Urgel. DIWA Senior High
School Series: Discipline and Ideas in Social Sciences. Makati City, Philippines: DIWA
Learning System Inc., 2016.

Betts, Jennifer. “Symbolic Interactionism Examples in Everyday Life.” Accessed

August 19, 2020. https://examples.yourdictionary.com/symbolic-
interactionismexamples-in-everyday-life.html.

Wikipedia contributors, “Symbolic interactionism,” Wikipedia, The Free

Encyclopedia,
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Symbolic_interactionism&oldid=973
219328 (accessed August 19, 2020).

“Marxism Dictionary Definition | Marxism Defined.” Accessed August 20, 2020.

https://www.yourdictionary.com/marxism.

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