Elements of Mechanical Engineering

Chapter 1. Introduction

Mitesh D. Gohil
Introduction:
• Prime movers and its types,
• System, Change of state, Path, Process, Cycle
• Concept of Force, Pressure, Energy, Work, Power
• Concept of, Heat, Temperature, Specific heat capacity,
Internal energy, Enthalpy,
• Statements of Zeroth Law and First law
Prime movers
• It is a device which uses the energy from natural sources and converts
it into mechanical energy

Fig. Solar Power Plant

(Central Tower Receiver type)
Fig. Heat Engine (IC) Fig. Wind Mill
Up to 2000 °C
Que. What is Prime mover ? How prime movers are Classified ? GTU : June 2009, Jan 2011
Que. Define the following terms : Prime mover GTU : Dec 2010

Types of Prime Movers

Thermal Non Thermal

• Heat Engines • Hydraulic Turbines
• Nuclear Power Plant Power Plants
• Geothermal Power Plant • Tidal Power Plant
• Biogas Power Plant • Wind Mills
• Solar Energy Power Plant
Que. What are the various forms of energy ? List the non conventional sources of energy GTU : Dec 2008
Que. What do you mean by non-conventional energy sources ? How does it differ from GTU : Dec 2010
conventional sources ?

Natural Energy Sources

Conventional or
Non-Renewable Non Conventional or Renewable
• Wood • LPG • Hydraulic Power
• Coal • CNG • Geothermal
• Coke • Methane • Solar
• Petrol • Propane • Bio gas and Bio mass
• Diesel • Nuclear • Wind energy
• Kerosene energy • Tidal energy
(Unstable • Wave energy
U235, Th232) • Ocean thermal energy
Que. Define the following terms : Boundary GTU : Nov-Dec 2010

Thermodynamic System
• It is a fixed mass in region of space under consideration to analyze
problem

Surrounding System Boundary

System

Real Imaginary

Universe = System + Surrounding

Que. Classify thermodynamic system and give example of each. GTU : Dec 2011

Types of System

Fig. (a) Open System (b) Close System (c) Isolated System
Que. Classify thermodynamic system and give example of each. GTU : Dec 2011

Types of System

Fig. a) Close System b) Open System with Control Volume

Open system CV :- The fixed volume in space of the open system under study is
called control volume and surface surrounding this volume is called control surface
State of system
The Identification of the system by observable or measurable
quantities is called the state of the system

Important aspects of thermodynamic properties

• Distinguish one system form another
• Unique value of system
• Independent of the path followed by system
• Exact Differential, Example
2
𝑑𝑇 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
1
Properties :
It’s measurable quantity to describe the system which only depends on the
state of system and not on the path follow by system

Properties Types :
1. Intensive Properties :- Independent of the mass of the system

(Pressure (p), Temperature (T), Entropy (S), Enthalpy (H))

2. Extensive Properties :- Dependent of the mass of the system

(length (L), Volume (V), mass (M))

• Point Function
When two co-ordinates are located on the graph, They define a point and the two
properties on the graph define state. These properties (p, T, v) are called point function.

• Path Function
There are certain quantities like heat and work can not be located on a graph by a point
but there are represented by the area. It is not a state or point function, rather it depends
on the path of the process. Such quantities are called path function and they are inexact
differentials
Process
• If any one or more properties of the system undergo a change due to energy
or mass transfer we say that the system has undergone a change of state

• The successive change of state of the system due to energy or mass transfer
defined by definite path is called a process.

• The curve joining the successive state represents the process path

• If a system undergoes two or more processes and returns to its original state
after conclusion of processes, the system is said to have undergone a cycle
Thermodynamic equilibrium
• A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium which is incapable of
any spontaneous change of its macroscopic properties (p, v, t) and it is in
complete balance with its surroundings.

• A system will be in thermodynamic equilibrium if it satisfies the condition

of mechanical, thermal and chemical equilibrium
Mechanical equilibrium :- No unbalance forces
Thermal Equilibrium :- Uniformity of temp. inside with surrounding
Chemical Equilibrium :- Absence of any chemical reaction
Quasi Static Process / Reversible
• A quasi static process is defined as a process in which the properties of the system depart
infinitesimally (extremely small) from the thermodynamic equilibrium path

• If the properties of the system has finite departures from thermodynamic equilibrium path the
process is said to be non quasi static

• Quasi static process is the succession of thermodynamic equilibrium state while in case of non-
quasi static process the end states only represent the thermodynamic equilibrium.

• Condition for reversible process are

1. No Friction
2. Heat transfer is through infinitely temperature difference.
3. There are no spontaneous changes in the system.

• All processes in nature are irreversible.

Work done in moving boundary of close system in quasi-static
process displacement work
• Force Exerted on piston, F = P A
• Small work done,
δw = F dl
δw = P A dl
2 Piston δw = P dV
Weight area, A 2 2
W = 1 δw = 1 P dV
dl
• In non-quasi-static process, W ≠
2
1 1
P dV because there is non unique value of ‘P’
Gas
2
• We conclude that the equation W = 1
P dV is
valid for quasi-static & reversible process only.
Work done in moving boundary of close system in quasi-static
process displacement work

Fig. Illustration that work

Fig. Work of a quasi-equilibrium expansion
depends on the process.
or compression process.
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous System
• If a system consist of homogeneous matter throughout in chemical composition and
physical Structure, it is called homogeneous system
• Example :- Ice, Water, Air, Vapor etc.

• While System Consisting of matter of different chemical compositions and/or

physical Structure is called heterogeneous system.
• Example :- Ice + Water, Two non miscible Liquid etc.

Heterogeneous
Homogeneous System
System
Pure Substance :- A pure substance is one which has a homogeneous and
invariable chemical composition even though there is a change of phase.
• Example:- liquid water, mixture of water and steam (Vapor), Mixture of ice
and water etc.

Fig. Pure Substance

Working Substance :- The fluid used in a thermodynamic system to serve as a

medium for transfer of energy between the system and its surrounding.
Energy
• Energy can be defined as the capacity to do work
• Various form of energy
1) Internal
• Chemical Energy (chemical Bond)
• Atomic Energy (Atomic Structure of matter)
• Molecular Energy (Molecular motion and its configure)
2) External
• Potential Energy (P.E.) = m 𝑔 ℎ
1
• Kinetic Energy (K.E) = 𝑚 𝑣 2
2
Concept of Force
• Fundamental Physical Dimensions
1) Length L (m)
2) Mass M (kg)
3) Time T (s)
Force :- Newton’s Second law
Force is Directly Proportional to the rate of change of moment

𝑑
𝐹 = 𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑣

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Where, v = velocity (m/s)
F= Force (N) a = Acceleration (m/𝑠 2 )
m = mass (kg)
Que. Define Pressure. GTU : May 2013

 Weight
• Weight :- The weight of a body (W) is the force with which a body is attracted
to the centre of earth.

W=mg (unit, N)
 Pressure
It is the normal force exerted by a system per unit surface area
𝐹
P=
𝐴
P = Pressure (Pa) 1 bar = 105 Pa
F = Force (N) 1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 Pa
A = Area (𝑚2 )
Que. Explain Absolute pressure, Gauge pressure and Atmospheric pressure. GTU : May 2013

 Absolute Pressure
The pressure measured relatively to perfect vacuum is called absolute
pressure

 Gauge Pressure
The pressure measured relatively to atmospheric pressure is called
gauge pressure

 Pressure Measuring Devices

• Barometer
• Manometer
• Bourdon Pressure Gauge
Relationships among the absolute, atmospheric, gage, and vacuum pressures.

Perfect Vacuum

Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Gauge Pressure

Barometric Pressure :-
• Atmospheric Pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the atmosphere.
• Atmospheric pressure measured at Mean Sea Level (M.S.L) is equal to 1.01325 bar

Patm = ρf g L

1.01325 × 105 = 𝜌𝑓 × 9.8 × ℎ𝑓

• Water, 𝜌𝑤 = 1000 kg/𝑚3

• Height of water column, 𝐿𝑤 = 10.33 m

• Mercury 𝜌𝑚 = 13 600 kg/𝑚3

• Height of mercury column, 𝐿𝑚 = 0.76 m

Fig. Barometer
Manometer

Manometer is measuring device which

measure the gauge pressure of fluid.

Pgauge (Tank) = ρf g L

Absolute Pressure =
Atmospheric Pressure + Gauge Pressure

Liquid Used :- Mercury, oil etc.

Fig. Manometer
Que. Explain with neat sketch Bourdon tube type pressure gauge GTU : June 2011

Bourdon tube Pressure gauge

• Cross Sectional :- Elliptical

• The bent tube tends to unbend when

subjected to fluid pressure

• Deformation will transmitted from

bend tube to needle will show the
gauge pressure of the fluid on the
calibrated scale.
Fig. Bourdon tube Pressure gauge
Similarity of Different Quantities in Electrical and Mechanical System

Phenomena Potential Flow Quantity Resistant

Difference
Currant flow in Wire e.m.f. (V1 −V2 ) Electric Current (I) Resistant (R)

Fluid Flow in Pipe Pressure Discharge/ Volume Surface friction (f) and
Difference flow rate (V) Viscosity (µ)
(P1 −P2 )
1
Heat flow in bar Temperature Heat Flow (Q)
Difference Thermal Conductivity (k)
(T1 −T2 )
Que. Define the following terms : Temperature. GTU : Nov-Dec 2010

Temperature
• The temperature is a property of the system or thermal state of a body
which distinguishes a hot body with a cold body

• Temperature of a body is proportional to stored molecular energy i.e.

the average molecular kinetic energy of the molecules in a system.

• Thermal Equilibrium means equality of temperature

• Measuring Device :- Thermometer

Temperature measuring Devices

Fig. Thermometers. (a) Liquid-in-glass. (b) Electrical-resistance (c) Infrared-sensing ear

thermometer.
Temperature Scale
Relation Between (Celsius (C), Fahrenheit (F), Kelvin (K), Rankine (R))

𝐅 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝐂 + 𝟑𝟐 …(1)

𝐊 = 𝐂 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓 …(2)

F = R – 459.67 …(3)

• Fine relation between F & K

from equation (1) and (2)
• Kelvin is SI Unit of temperature
Temperature Scales

P -T plots of the experimental data

obtained from a constant-volume gas
thermometer using four different
gases at different (but low) pressures.

Concluded that

Absolute zero Temperature

= −273.15 ℃ = 0 K
Heat
• Heat is the form of energy which transfer without transfer of mass, from one body
to another body (or between system and surroundings) from higher temperature to
lower temperature by virtue of temperature difference between two bodies.
• Abbreviated as ‘Q’ and Unit is J (Joule)
• Heat Addition into system :- Positive ( +Q)
Sign Convention
• Heat Rejection from system :- Negative (-Q)

• Extensive Property and Path Function (Inexact Differential)

2

𝑄= 𝑄 𝑑𝑡
1
Work
• Analogous to heat, work is also a transient form of energy which is
observed when it crosses the boundaries of the system without transfer
of mass
• It is Path Function
• Small work done due to displacement ds

𝛿𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑠

2
• 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝑊 = 1
𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑠
External and Internal Work

• System whose sole effect external to the system is to exert a force on

the surroundings. This work is called an external work.

• When the work done by the force of one part of the system (internal
force) on to another part of the same system, it is said that it has done
an internal work.
• We are only concerned with external work.
Work
Work done with displacement
• Work is a scalar quantity having the dimension of energy
W=F×d
• Power :- It is the time rate of doing work.
𝑑𝑤 𝑊
P= = = 𝑊
𝑑𝑡 𝑡
Sign Convention:-
Work done by system +W +W
+Q
Work done on system –W System
Heat addition in system +Q -Q -W
Heat rejection from system -Q
surrounding

Fig. Sign Convention

𝑄 − 𝑊 = ∆𝑈
Difference between heat and work

1. Heat can only transfer when there is difference of temperature

between the system and surrounding, while work transfer can take
place even without the change in temperature

2. In constant volume process though work can not take place, however
heat can be transferred.

3. In case of work transfer, its sole effect could be raising or lowering a

weight in the surrounding but in case of heat transfer other effects
are also observed.
Que. Write similarities between heat transfer and work transfer. GTU : June 2011

Similarities between heat and work

1. Both heat and work exist in transit and these are never possessed or
contained in a system.

2. Both heat and work refer to boundary phenomena.

3. Both heat and work are path function and do not represent as the
properties of system (Inexact difference, 𝛿𝑥 )
Que. Define Specific heat of a substance. GTU : Jan 2011

Specific heat of a substance.

• It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of

1 kg of substance by 1 degree of temperature
𝐐 = 𝐦 𝐂 (∆𝐓)

Q
C= J/kg K
m (∆T)
Q = heat transfer (J)
∆T = T2 − T2 = temperature change
C = Specific heat, J/kg K
Specific heat of gas
1) Specific heat of gas at constant volume (CV )
It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of gas
by one degree at constant volume.

2) Specific heat of gas at constant pressure (Cp )

It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of gas
by one degree at constant pressure.

3) Adiabatic Index, γ or k
The ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant
volume is known as adiabatic index.

Cp γ = 1.4 di-atomic gas

γ=
CV γ = 1.67 mono-atomic gas
Enthalpy
• It is total energy of the system
H = U + pV
• Specific Enthalpy,
h = u + pv

• U, p, V are point function, so H is point function and property of

system
• Unit of Enthalpy (H) is kJ
• Unit of Specific Enthalpy (h) is kJ/kg
Que. State and explain zeroth law of thermodynamics. GTU : June 2009
Que. What is zeroth law of thermodynamics ? GTU : Dec 2011

Zero law of thermodynamic

• If two bodies A and B are individually thermal equilibrium with a third body C
then the two bodies A and B will also be in thermal equilibrium with each other

A B

Fig. Body A, B, C

Another word,
TA = TC & TB = TC then TA = TB
Que. State first law of thermodynamics. GTU : Dec 2008
Que. Define Following terms : First law of thermodynamics. GTU : Nov-Dec 2010
First law of thermodynamic (Energy conservation law)
• “ Energy can neither be created nor-destroyed but it can be converted from one form to
another.”
First law of thermodynamic applied to close System, Cyclic Process
If a close system goes through a cycle, the algebraic sum of total energy transfer to it as heat
and work is zero.
𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊 = 0

State 1 State 1

Close System Close System

W
𝑈1 Cyclic Process 𝑈1

Mass transfer = 0
First law of thermodynamic applied to close System subjected to
change of state (Process)
• If a closed system undergoes a change of state or process having both as heat and
work transfer as shown in fig., then the net energy transfer (Q - W) will be stored
by the system as internal energy ∆U

Q − W = ∆U
State 1-2
• If an infinitesimal process is carried out then, Close System

Q ∆𝐔 = 𝐔𝟏 − 𝐔𝟐 W
δQ − δW = dU

Fig. Heat and work transfer during a process

Questions of GTU Exam

Que. What is flow and non-flow process ? GTU : Dec 2011

Flow Process :- Processes carried out in open systems having mass flow across
the boundaries are called flow process.
Non-Flow Process :- While the processes carried out in closed system without
mass transfer its boundaries are called Non-flow process.

Que. Barometer is used to measure ______( Ans. Pressure ) GTU : Dec 2012
Example. An artificial satellite has a mass of 600 kg and is moving Nov 2010
towards moon. Calculate its kinetic and potential energies in (MJ)
relative to earth when it is 50 km from launching and moving at 2500
km/hr. Take acceleration of earth’s gravitational field as 790 cm/𝑠 2
Given Data :-
m = 600 kg,
g =7.9 m/𝑠 2 ,
h = 50 km = 50,000 m,
v=2500 km/hr. = 694.44 m/s

1. Potential energy = m g h =2.37 × 108 J

1
2. Kinetic energy = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 1.44 × 108 J
2
Que. SI Units of Following GTU : Dec 2012

1) Work J
2) Enthalpy J
3) Mean Effective Pressure Pa or N/𝑚2
4) Heat J
5) Power W or J/s
6) Force N
7) Energy J
8) Specific Heat J/kg K
9) Specific Volume 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
10) Calorific value J/kg
11) Stroke m
12) Dryness Fraction Dimensionless
13) Efficiency Dimensionless
14) Swept Volume 𝑚3
Thank You…