A

a
A test, if Σ an is a convergent series,
This is a number in hexadecimal and { bn} n ∈ N is a positive
system having value 10. monotonically decreasing function
i. e.,
aa similar triangle
bn ≤ bn −1 , ∀ n
Two triangles in which
corresponding angles are equal as Then, Σ an bn is also convergent.
shown below, are said to be aa abscissa
similar triangle. The abscissa of a point is the
A C distance of the point from origin
along the x-axis. Thus, abscissa is
the first number x in the
coordinates of a point ( x , y). For
example, the abscissa of the point
C ( 2, 7) is 2.
B E D
absolutely convergent
Thus, ∆ABC ~ ∆CDEread as “∆ABC
is aa similar to ∆CDE”. A series Σan is said to be absolutely
aas congruence triangle convergent if the series Σ| an| is
convergent. For example, the series
Two triangles in which
∞
( −1) n 1 1 1
∑
corresponding angles are equal and = 1 − + − + ....
corresponding sides that are n
n=0 2 2 4 8
congruent as shown below, are said
to be aas congruence triangle. is an absolutely convergent series
A C because
∞
( −1) n 1 1 1
∑ 2n = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 +....
n=0

1
= =2 (GP)
1
C
B D E 1−
2
Thus, ∆ABC ≅ ∆CDE read as
“∆ABC is aas congruence to ∆CDE”. is a convergent series.
abacus absolute error
A device which is used for The absolute difference between the
arithmetic calculation is called an exact value of a number N and its
abacus. approximate value N1 is called
abel’s test absolute error. Thus, absolute error
This is a test for convergence of an =|N − N1|
infinite series. According to abel’s Note The error has no units.
A
absolute maximum 2

absolute maximum 2
For example, 1, 2, 5, 1.976, etc.,
The highest point over the whole 3
are absolute number.
domain of a function or relation is
called absolute maximum. Others absolute term
names of absolute maximum are The term in a polynomial having no
absolute max, global maximum or variable is called absolute term. For
global max or greatest value. The example, in the polynomial.
first derivative test and the second f ( x) = x 3 + 2x 2 − 3 x + 5
derivative test are common 5 is the absolute term.
methods used to find maximum absolute value
values of a function.
y For any real number x the absolute
value (modulus of x) is denoted by
absolute maximum
|x|and define by
relative maximum  x , if x ≥ 0
|x|= 
− x , if x < 0
Thus, the absolute value of a
x number is the distance of the
number from the origin on a
number line. Also, the absolute
absolute minimum value of a number is always
The lowest point over the whole positive. For example, the absolute
domain of a function or relation is value of 5 is 5 (written by |5 |= 5)
called absolute minimum. Other and the absolute value of −5 is also
names of absolute minimum are 5 (written by|−5|= 5).
absolute min, global minimum or The absolute value of real numbers
global min or least value. The first holds the following properties:
derivative test and the second (i) |x|≥ 0 ⇔ x = 0
derivative test are common (ii) |xy|=|x||y|
methods used to find minimum (iii) |x + y|≤|x|+|y|
values of a function. (triangle inequality)
y (iv) |x − y|≥||x|−|y||; ∀ x , y ∈ R
absolute value of a
complex number
The absolute value of a complex
x number a + bi is denoted by|a + bi|
and define by the distance between
relative relative
min min a complex number and the origin
on the complex plane given by the
absolute minimum
formula a 2 + b 2 . For a complex
absolute number number in polar form
A number that has a single value r(cos θ + i sin θ) the absolute value is
i. e., a number represented by
figures is called absolute number. r. This is also called the modulus of
complex number. The properties of
A
3 acceleration of free fall

the modulus of a complex number acceleration

are given below: The rate of change of velocity of a
y moving particle is called its
acceleration. This is a vector
+b
i| a+ib quantity.
|a

Let v is the velocity of a moving

r=

particle at any time, then by

x′ x definition the acceleration vector a
O is given by
dv
a=
dt
d  dx 
=  
y′ dt  dt 
d2x
Let z , z1 , z2 ∈ C , then = 2
z = 0 ⇒z = 0
(i) || dt
i. e., Re(z) = Im(z) = 0 where x is the displacement vector
of the particle at time t.
(ii) |z|=|z|=|−z| = |− z | When we say that a particle is
(iii) −|| z ≤ Re(z) ≤||; z −||
z ≤ Im(z) ≤||
z moving with velocity v and
(iv) zz =|z|2 acceleration a, it means that the
(v) |z1z2|=|z1||z2| magnitudes of the velocity and
acceleration of the particle are v and
z |z | a, respectively. Thus, we have
(vi) 1 = 1 ; z2 ≠ 0 2
z2 |z2| dv d  dx  d x
a= =   = 2
(vii)|z1 + z2|2 =|z1|2 +|z2|2 + 2 Re(z1z2 ) dt dt  dt  dt
(viii)|z1 − z2|2 =|z1|2 +|z2|2 − 2 Re(z1z2 ) Also,
dv dv dx dv
a= = ⋅ =v
(ix) |z1 + z2|2 +|z1 − z2|2 = 2(|z1|2 +|z2|2 ) dt dx dt dx
absorption The SI unit of acceleration is m/s 2
and the dimension is LT −2 .
For any two sets X and Y, subsets of
universal set acceleration of free fall
(i) X ∩ (X ∪ Y) = X The acceleration with which an
(ii) X ∪ (X ∩ Y) = X object falls freely to earth
are called absorptions law. unimpeded by air resistance or
other disturbing forces is called
abundant number acceleration of free fall. This is also
An abundant number is a number called acceleration due to gravity
(which is an integer) for which the because it is a result of the
sum of its proper factors is greater gravitational attraction of the body.
than the number itself. Also, it is If the Earth is assumed to be an
called redundant number. For isotropic solid sphere, then the
example, 24 is an abundant number acceleration is directed towards the
because the proper factors of 24 are Earth’s centre and its value can be
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 whose sum is 36, obtained from Newton’s law of
which is greater than 24. gravitation. This is denoted by g.
A
accuracy 4

accuracy is called addition. Addition of

A measure of the precision of a integers is equivalent to the process
numerical quantity, usually given of accumulating sets of objects.
to n significant figures or n decimal Addition of fractions is performed
places is called accuracy. For by putting each in terms of a
example, 3.14 is a fairly accurate common denominator and adding
approximation of π. the numerators.
The addition of numbers is both
accurate to n decimal commutative and associative.
places i. e., a+ b = b+ a
Rounding a number with the ( a + b) + c = a + ( b + c)
accuracy specified by the number for all three numbers a , b and c.
of decimal places given in
the rounded value is called
addition of complex
accurate to n decimal places. numbers
For example, e = 2.71828...= 2.718 is Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x 2 + iy 2 be
accurate to three decimal places. two complex numbers, then their
sum z1 + z2 is defined by
acre z1 + z2 = ( x1 + iy1 ) + ( x 2 + iy 2 )
Acre is a unit of area which is = ( x1 + x 2 ) + i( y1 + y 2 )
commonly used to measure tracts Thus, Re(z1 + z2 ) = Re(z1 ) + Re(z2 )
of land. The relation between acre and Im(z1 + z2 ) = Im(z1 ) + Im(z2 )
and sq mile is
For example, If z1 = 2 + 3i and
1sq mile = 640 acres z2 = 3 − 2i
Also, 1 acre = 4046.85642 sq m Then,
z1 + z2 = ( 2 + 3) + ( 3 − 2)i = 5 + i.
acute angle The addition of complex numbers
An angle which is less than a right holds the following properties:
angle, i.e., 90° is called acute angle. (i) Commutativity
acute triangle z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 , ∀ z1 , z2
The triangle in which all three (ii) Associativity
(z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 ),
interior angles are acute angle is
∀ z1 , z2 , z3
called acute triangle. For example,
(iii) Existence of addition identity
an equilateral triangle is an acute z + 0 = 0 + z = z , ∀ z where
triangle. 0 = 0 + 0 i is called addition
addend identity.
The addend is one the numbers addition of matrices
used in addition operation that is Let A and B be two matrices of same
being added in order to find a sum. order m × n, then their sum A + B is
For example, in 5 + 6 = 11, 5 and 6 a matrix of order m × n obtained by
each is addend. adding the corresponding elements
addition of A and B. Thus, if A = [aij ]m × n and
A mathematical operation B = [bij ]m × n are two matrices, then
performed on two or more their sum is a matrix A + B of order
numbers to give a resultant number m × n having the elements defined
by
A
5 addition in plane trigonometry

cij = aij + bij ; i = 1, 2,...., m Thus, in the following figure, we

j = 1, 2,...., n. have
where cij is the (i , j)th element of Q R
A + B.
The addition of matrices holds the
a+b
following properties b
b
(i) Commutativity
A + B = B + A, ∀A, B
(ii) Associativity O
a
P
A + ( B + C) = ( A + B) + C, OP + OQ = OR ⇒ a + b = c
∀A , B , C The addition of vectors holds the
(iii) Existence of identity following properties:
A + 0 = 0 + A = A , ∀A
(i) Commutativity
Here, 0 is called additive
a + b = b + a, ∀ a, b
identity of the set of matrices.
(ii) Associativity
(iv) Existence of additive inverse
A + ( −A) = ( −A) + A = 0 a + ( b + c) = ( a + b) + c, ∀a , b, c
(additive identity) (iii) Existence of additive identity
The matrix −A is called inverse a + 0 = 0 + a , ∀a, where
of matrix A. 0 is called additive identity.
addition of vectors (iv) Existence of additive inverse
If two vectors are represented in a + ( − a) = 0 = ( − a) + a
magnitude and direction by two The vector − a is called the additive
sides of a triangle taken in the same inverse of vector a.
order, then their sum is represented addition in plane
by the third side taken in the trigonometry
reverse order. This is called the Formulae in the plane
triangle law of addition of vectors. trigonometry that express a
B b trigonometric function of sum of
C
two angles in terms of
trigonometric functions are given
a
below:
a+b
(i) sin( A + B)
= sin A cos B + cos A sin B
A (ii) cos( A + B)
= cos A cos B − sin A sin B
If two vectors a and b are tan A + tan B
represented in magnitude and (iii) tan( A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B
direction by two adjacent sides of a cot A cot B − 1
parallelogram, then their sum c is (iv) cot( A + B) =
cot A + cot B
represented by diagonal of the
parallelogram which is initial with The addition formulae are
the given vectors. This is called originally generated from
parallelogram law of addition of Ptolemy’s theorem on cyclic
vectors. quadrilaterals and are sometimes
known as Ptolemy’s formulae.
A
additive function 6

additive function P( A or B) = P( A) + P( B)
A function f ( x) is said to be i. e., P( A ∪ B) = P( A) + P( B)
additive function, if additive property of
f ( x + y) = f ( x) + f ( y), ∀x , y equality
For example, f ( x) = x is not an If we add a particular number to
additive function because both the sides of an equation, the
x+y ≠ x + y equation remains unaffected. This
is one of the most commonly used
while identity function is always properties for solving equations.
additive. Thus,
additive identity a = b ⇔ a+ c= b+ c
for some c.
The additive identity is a number For example, x − 3 = 5
which is added to a number gives ⇒ x− 3+ 3 =5+ 3
the same number, i.e.,
0 + a = a + 0 = a , ∀ a. (additive property)
Thus, 0 is the additive identity. For ⇒ x=8
example, adjacent angles
0+7 =7 + 0 =7 Two angles in a plane which share a
The additive identity of matrices is common vertex and a common side
the zero matrix. but do not overlap are called
additive inverse adjacent angles. For example,
A number −x is called additive anglesα andβ are adjacent angles in
inverse of a number x, if x + ( − x) the following figure
= − x + x = 0 (additive identity) and
denoted by
x −1 = − x
For example, the additive inverse β
of 2 is −2 in the set of integer α
numbers. adjacent edge
The additive inverse of a matrix A
A pair of edges in a graph joined by
is denoted by −A and is obtained by
changing the sign of every entry of a common vertex are called
matrix A. adjacent edge.
additive law in adjacent side
probability If the end points of any two lines
This is a method for finding the intersect at one point, then these
probability that either or both of lines are called adjacent side to each
two events occurs. Let A and B are other.
two events. Then, addition law is
P( A or B) = P( A) + P( B) −P( A and B) adjacent vertex
i. e., P( A ∪ B) A pair of vertices in a graph joined
= P( A) + P( B) − P( A ∩ B) by a common edge are called
If A and B are mutually exclusive adjacent vertex.
events, then
A
7 algebraic number

adjoint algebraic curve

The transpose of the matrix formed A curve that is represented by an
by taking the cofactors of the matrix algebraic equation is called
A is called adjoint of A and denoted algebraic curve. For example, the
by adj ( A). curve of line, parabola are algebraic
For the matrix A = [aij ] m × n , curve.
Let C = [C ij ] m × n denote the cofactor algebraic expression
matrix of A. Then, Any algebraic formula obtained by
adj ( A) = CT combining letters or other symbols
Thus, if together with the arithmetic
a b  operations is called algebraic
A=  expression. For example,
c d
x 3 + y 3 + 3 xy and x 2 + 2xy + y 2 are
⇒ Cofactor of A algebraic expression.
 d − c
⇒ C=  algebraic geometry
−b a 
The branch of mathematics related
Then, adj ( A) = CT
to the study of geometry by
 d −b algebraic methods is called
= 
−c a  algebraic geometry.
where cij ’s are cofactors of aij ’s. algebraic number
affine transformation A number real or complex that is
the root of a polynomial equation
A transformation which preserves
with integral coefficients is called
collinearty and therefore, the algebraic number. For example,
straightness and parallel nature of 5 1
lines and the ratios of distances is , − 7 , (1 + 5 ), 3 − i and 3 6 are
2 2
called affine transformation. algebraic numbers because they are
aleph null roots of the polynomial equations
This is the symbol for writing the 2x − 5 = 0, x + 7 = 0, x 2 − x − 1 = 0,
cardinality of a countably infinite x 2 − 6x + 10 = 0 and x3 − 6 = 0
set denoted by ℵ0 (aleph with a respectively. Thus, all rational
numbers are algebraic numbers
subscript of 0). This is the smallest
and therefore, all are surds such as
infinite cardinal number.
7 , as well as the number built
algebra from surds such as
Algebra is the branch of 42 + a 5.2
mathematics where letters like x or
4− 3
y or other symbols are used to
The real numbers which are not
represent unknown numbers.
algebraic numbers are called the
Thus, algebra is the study of transcendental numbers. For
generalized arithmetic. For example, π and e are transcendental
example,7 + x = 10 is true for x = 3. numbers.
A
algebraic operations 8

algebraic operations transversal

These are the functions to combine θ1 line
θ3
two or more elements of the δ β
algebra. For example, the
arithmetical operation of addition α γ set of two parallel lines
assigns to any two numbers x and y θ4 θ2
by x + y.
algorithm
For example, α and β are alternate
An algorithm is a series of steps or angles. Also, γ and δ, θ1 and θ 2 , θ 3
rules used for solving a problem in and θ 4 are alternate angles.
some definite steps. For example, alternate exterior angles
the standard method for finding
Alternate exterior angles are
the greatest common divisor of two
defined as two exterior angles on
or more number is an algorithm. opposite sides of a transversal line
Now, we find the GCD of two which lie on different parallel lines.
numbers 578 and 250 by algorithm.
Here, 578 = 250 × 2 + 78 α
δ
250 = 78 × 3 + 16
78 = 16 × 4 + 14
16 = 14 × 1 + 2
14 = 2 × 7 + 0 γ β
Thus, GCD (578, 250) = 2 because
when we divide the given numbers
by 2, the remainder is zero. For example, α and β are alternate
exterior angles. Also, γ and δ are
alpha alternate exterior angles.
This is a letter of ancient greek alternate interior angles
which is frequently used in
mathematics and science denoted Alternate interior angles are
by α. In the system of greek defined as two interior angles on
numerals, it has a value of 1. opposite sides of a transversal line
which lie on different parallel lines.
alternate angles For example, α and β are alternate
When a transversal line intersects a interior angles. Also, γ and δ are
given pair of lines, eight angles are alternate interior angles.
formed.
An interior angle between the
transversal line and one line or an transversal line
interior angle between the γ α
transversal line and the other line,
such that these two angles are on β
δ
opposite sides of transversal line
are called alternate angles.
A
9 altitude of a parallelogram

alternating series top, whether that top is an opposite

A series whose terms are vertex, an apex or another base is
alternatively positive and negative called altitude of that geometric
is called alternating series. Thus, figure. This is also called the height
∑ ( −1) n + 1 an = a1 − a2 + a3 − a4 + ... of geometric figure.

is an alternating series. For altitude of a cone

example, the series The shortest line segment between
1 1 1 1 1 the apex of a cone and the base of
1 − + − + − + .....
2 3 4 5 6 the cone is called altitude of the
is an alternating series. cone. Altitude also refers to the
alternating series length of this segment. This is also
remainder called the height of the cone.

If the alternating series

∞

∑ ( −1) n + 1 an = a1 − a2 + a3 − a4 +...
altitude

n =1

converges to S by alternating series

test, then the remainder
n Cone
R n = S − ∑ ( −1) k ak
k =1
altitude of a cylinder
can be estimated as given below for The shortest line segment between
the bases of cylinder is called
all n ≥ N .
altitude of the cylinder. Altitude
|R n|≤ an +1 also refers to the length of this
where N is the point at which the segment. This is also called the
value of an become non-increasing height of the cylinder.
i.e.,
an ≥ an +1 , ∀ n ≥ N and N ≥ 1.
alternating series test altitude

The alternating series

∞

∑ ( −1) n + 1 an = a1 − a2 + a3 − a4 + ... Cylinder

n =1

( an > 0, ∀ n)
altitude of a
is convergent, if parallelogram
(i) an ≥ an +1 , ∀ n
The shortest line segment between
(ii) lim an = 0 opposite sides of a parallelogram is
n→ ∞

which is also called as Leibnitz test. called the altitude of the

parallelogram. Altitude also refers
altitude to the length of this line segment.
The shortest distance between the This is also called the height of
base of a geometric figure and its parallelogram.
A
altitude of a prism 10

opposite side is called the altitude

of the triangle.
altitude
C

altitude
Parallelogram

altitude of a prism
The shortest line segment between B
D A base
the bases of a prism is called the
altitude of the prism. This is also amicable number
called the height of the prism. This is a pair of numbers with
property that each is equal to the
sum of the positive divisors of the
altitude other. The smallest pair of such
numbers is 220 and 284. The proper
divisor of 220 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20,
Prism
22, 44, 55 and 110 whose sum is 284.
altitude of a pyramid Also, the proper divisor of 284 are
The shortest line segment between 1, 2, 4, 71 and 142 whose sum is 220.
the apex and the base of a pyramid amplitude
is called the altitude of the
pyramid. This is also called the Half the difference between the
height of the pyramid. minimum and the maximum
values of the range of a periodic
function with bounded range is
altitude called amplitude. Essentially,
amplitude is the radius of the
range.
Pyramid For example, for x = A sin(ωt + α ),
where ω and α are constants. A is
altitude of trapezium the amplitude.
The shortest line segment between y
the bases of a trapezium is called amplitude
altitude of trapezium. This is also distance
from
called the height of the trapezium. x′ x
min to
max
y′

altitude amplitude of complex

number
The angle θ which OZ makes with
Trapezium positive direction of x-axis in
altitude of a triangle anti-clockwise sense is called the
The shortest line segment between amplitude (argument) of z and it is
a vertex of a triangle and the denoted by arg (z).
A
11 angle between two planes

Y
Z(x, y) A B A∧B
T T T
θ
X′ X
O T F F
F T F
Y′
F F F

analytic geometry angle

An angle is the
The branch of geometry related to
amount of
the study of geometric figures rotation of a
using the coordinate plane or revolving line θ
coordinates in space is called with respect to θ = angle
analytic geometry. Formulae used a fixed line. If
in analytic geometry are distance the rotation is in anti-clockwise
formula, mid-point formula, direction, the angle measured is
positive and if the rotation is in
division formula, centroid formula
clockwise direction, the angle
and area of a convex polygon etc. measured is negative.
This is also called coordinate
angle between two lines
geometry.
The angle between two lines
analytic method y = m1 x + c1 and y = m2 x + c2 is
The use of algebraic and/or given by
m − m2
numeric methods as the main tanθ = 1
technique for solving a 1 + m1m2
mathematics problem is called where θ is the angle between the
lines.
analytic method. The instructions + c2
m 2x
“solve using analytic methods” and y=
“solve analytically” usually mean
that calculator is not allowed. O θ

and y=
mx
1 +c
This is a truth functional 1

connectivity used to join two Thus, two lines are parallel or

statements. The conjunction of a perpendicular, if m1 = m2 or
m1m2 = −1, respectively.
statement P and a statement Q is
Let l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 are
written as “P and Q”. The symbol direction ratio of two lines, then
“∧” is also used for “and”. Thus, |l1 l2 + m1m2 + n1n2|
cos θ =
P ∧ Q also denotes the conjection of l1 + m12 + n12 l22 + m22 + n22
2

P and Q. For example, Charu is a

brave girl and Rakhi is an honest angle between two
girl. Also, its meaning is given by
planes
truth table. Let n1 and n 2 be the normal vectors
of two planes, then a method of
A
angle between two vectors 12
obtaining the angle between the angle of elevation
planes is to take the angle between The angle above the horizontal line
n1 and n 2 with the directions of n1 that an observer must look to see an
and n 2 choosen so that the angle θ object that is higher than the
satisfies 0 ≤ θ ≤ 90°. observer is called an angle of
angle between two elevation. The angle of elevation is
vectors congruent to the angle of
depression.
The angle between two vectors a object
and b is given by
a⋅b
cos θ = l in e
|a||b| ht
sig
a⋅b
⇒ θ = cos−1 and 0 ≤ θ ≤ 180º.
|a ||b | angle of elevation
observer
angle bisector
A line or a ray that divides an angle angle of friction
in two half angles is called angle See friction.
bisector. The angle bisectors of a angle of inclination of a
triangle are concurrent and line
intersect at the incentre. For
polygon, an angle bisector is a line This is the angle between a line and
that bisects an interior angle. the x-axis. This angle is always
A between 0° and 180° and is
measured counter clockwise from
the part of x-axis to the right of the
θ/2 angle bisector line.
O D y
θ θ/2 lin
e

angle of inclination
B
x′ x
O
angle of depression
The angle below the horizontal line
that an observer must look to see an y′
object that is lower than the
observer is called an angle of Also, the slope of a line is the
depression. Also, the angle of tangent of the angle of inclination.
depression is congruent to the All the horizontal lines have angle
angle of elevation. of inclination 0° while all the
vertical lines have angle of
inclination 90°.
angle of projection
observer The angle of the direction in which
angle of depression
a particle is projected makes with
si g
ht l
the horizontal is called angle of
in e projection. This is the angle that the
$ initial velocity makes with
object horizontal.
A
13 annulus

angstrom where r is the position vector of the

An angstrom is the unit of length particle relative to O and the
and is equal to one ten billionth momentum p. This is a vector
quantity. For a particle of mass m
(1 × 10−10) of metre. This unit of
moving with constant speed v in a
measure of length is named for the circle of radius r, the angular
Swedish physicist Anders J. momentum about the centre is mvr
Angstrom. in magnitude.
angular acceleration angular speed
The angular acceleration α of a The magnitude of angular velocity
particle is defined as the rate of is called angular speed.
change of angular velocity given by
dω angular velocity
α= For a rigid body rotating about an
dt
where ω is the angular velocity. axis, the velocity v of any point P
relative to any point O on the axis as
angular displacement origin is →
The angular difference between the v =ω ×r
initial and final position of a line is →
called angular displacement. where ω is the angular velocity and
r is the position vector of P with
respect to O. Thus, angular velocity
→
ω is a vectorial property which is
usually associated with rotational
motion. A particle moving with
angular displacement constant speed v in a circle of radius
O v
r has angular speed .
angular frequency r
annulus
The number of complete rotations
The region between two concentric
per unit time is called angular
circles of different radii is called
frequency. In the equation of
annulus. This is also in washer
simple harmonic motion shape.
d2x
= ω2 x
dt 2
The constant ω is called angular
frequency. The angular frequency R
is usually measured in radian per
second. The frequency of r
oscillation is ω .
2π
angular momentum
The angular momentum relative to The area of an annulus is the area of
a point O, of a particle of mass m the larger circle minus that of the
smaller circle i. e., area of annulus
moving with velocity v is
L = r × p = m( r × v) = π (R2 − r 2)
A
antecedent 14

where, R is the radius of the larger given matrix. This is also called
circle and r is the radius of the skew-hermitian matrix. For
smaller circle. example,
antecedent 1 i 1 1 
−i 1 and 1 0 are antihermitian
In the ratio a : b, a is called    
antecedent i. e., the first term of a matrix.
ratio is called antecedent.
antiparallel vector
anticlockwise
A pair of directed lines or vectors
The direction opposite to the whose directions are parallel but
direction in which the hands of a having the opposite sense are
clock move is called anticlockwise. called antiparallel vectors. Vector
This is also called a
counterclockwise. b
a and b are antiparallel vectors.
antipodal points
Two given points directly opposite
to each other on a sphere or ellipse
antiderivative of a are called antipodal points i. e., the
end points of a diameter of a sphere
function
are called antipodal points. Thus,
A function that has a given function for a sphere, antipodal means
as its derivative i. e., a function φ( x) samething as diametrically
is called an antiderivative of a opposite.
function f ( x), if φ′ ( x) = f ( x). points A and B
For example, f ( x) = x 3 − 8 is an are antipodal.
antiderivative of f ′ ( x) = 3 x 2 .
A B
antidifferentiation
See integration
antilogarithm
antisymmetric matrix
If y = 10x
A square matrix A = [aij ]n × n is called
Then, log10 y = x antisymmetric matrix, if
y = anti log x aij = − aji , ∀ i , j
Thus, a number that has a Also, the diagonal elements of
logarithm equal to a given number antisymmetric matrix are all zero.
is called antilogarithm.
In other words, a square matrix A is
antihermitian matrix said to be antisymmetric, if
A matrix A is said to be AT = −A
antihermitian matrix, if For example, the matrix
A * = −A 0 h g
where, A* is the transpose of the A =  −h 0 f 
complex conjugate matrix of a  
− g − f 0 
A
15 arabic numerals

is an antisymmetric matrix. This is polygon’s inscribed i. e., inradius is

also called skew-symmetric matrix. called apothem.
antisymmetric relation
apothem
A relation R is said to be
antisymmetric relation, if
( a , b) ∈ R ,( b , a) ∈ R ⇒ a = b
For example, the relation ‘ ≤ ’ on the
set of integers is an antisymmetric approximation
relation. A result that is not exact but is
This is also known as asymmetric sufficiently close to be of practical
relation. use is called approximation. When
apex two quantity X and x are
approximately equals, then we
The vertex at the tip of a cone or 22
pyramid is called apex. write X ~
− x. For example, π ~
− and
apex 7
2~− 1.414.
approximation by
differentials
A method for approximating the
value of a function near to a known
value is called the approximation
apollonius circle
by differentials. Also, this method
Given two points A and B on the uses the tangent at the known value
plane and a constant λ, the locus of of the function to approximate the
a point such that function’s graph. In this method, let
AP
=λ ∆x and ∆y represent the changes in
PB x and y for the function y = f ( x) and
is a circle called apollonius circle. dx and dy represent the changes in x
P
and y for the tangent line. Then,
y
A y = f(x)
B 



dy ∆y


 

dx = ∆x
λ = 1 gives a straight line, so either
x
this value must be excluded or in
this context, a straight line must be ∆y = f ′( x) ∆x
considered to be a special case of a ∴ f ( x + ∆x) = y + ∆y
circle. In the figure λ = 2. = f ( x) + f ′( x) ⋅ ∆x
apothem arabic numerals
The length of line segment from the The number 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and
centre of a regular polygon to the 9 are called arabic numerals used in
mid-point of a side is called the Hindu-Arabic number system
apothem. In other words, the to give numbers in the form
radius of circle of a regular generally familiar today.
A
arbitrary constant 16

arbitrary constant ∴ The arc length of y = f ( x)

A non-numerical symbol which is between x = a and x = b is
not a variable in a generalized 2
b  dy 
operation is called arbitrary =∫ 1 +   dx
constant. For example, in a  dx 
ax 2 + bx + c = 0, a , b , c are arbitrary (ii) In parametric coordinate
constants. system, let x = x(t), y = y(t),
arc t ∈[α , β]
The section part of a curve between  dx  2  dy  2 
two points is called the arc of the ds =   +   dt
   dt 
curve. This is denoted by s. In the  dt 
given figure, AB is the arc of the
∴The arc length between α and β
curve y = f ( x).
is
B β  dx  2  dy  2 
=∫   +   dt
α
arc  dt dt 

(iii) In polar form,

A
let r = r(θ), (α ≤ θ ≤ β)
y = f(x)
  dr  
2
Archimedes principle ds = r 2 +   dθ
 dθ 
The principle states that “If a body  
is wholly or partially submerged in ∴ The arc length between α and β
a fluid, it experiences an upward is
force equal to the weight of fluid
that it displaces.” β  2  dr  2 
=∫ r +   dθ
arc length of a curve α
 dθ 
The length of a curve or a line arc of a circle
between two points is called arc
length of the curve. Thus, the The length of connected section
b
arc length = ∫ ds between two points of the
a circumference of a circle is called
Value of arc element ds can be the arc of the circle.
found as below
B
(i) In rectangular coordinate arc of a circle
system, let y = f ( x) be a graph of
a function f ( x) such that f ′ is
continuous on [a , b], then O
2 A
 dy 
ds = 1 +   dx
 dx 
2
 dx 
or ds = 1 +   dy In the figure, AB is the arc of the
 dy  circle.
A
17 area of a circle

area area between two

The area of a region is the number curves
of square units contained within Let y = f ( x) and y = g( x) are
the region. For simple geometric continuous function on [a , b]. Then,
curves such as rectangles triangles, the area bounded above by y = f ( x)
cylinders etc., the area can be and bounded below by y = g( x) and
calculated by simple formula based abscissas x = a and x = b is
on their dimension.
y
area between the curve y = f(x)
and the axis
Let y = f ( x) be a continuous
function defined on [a , b]. Then, the y = g(x)
area bounded by the curve y = f ( x),
the x-axis and the ordinates x = a O x=a x=b
x
and x = b is
b
b Area = ∫ |f ( x) − g( x)| dx
Area = ∫a f ( y) dx a

y Similarly, let x = f ( y) and x = g( y)

are continuous function on [c, d].
y = f(x) Then, the area bounded left by
x = f ( y) and bounded right by
f(a) f(b)
x = g( y) and the ordinates x = c and
x = d is
x d
O x=a x=b Area = ∫ |f ( y) − g( y)|dy
c
For example, the area under the y
x = f(y) x = g(y)
curve y = sin x and the x-axis and
ordinates x = 0 and x = 2π is y=d
y
1
x=c
x
0 π x
2π
O
–1
2π
Area = ∫ sin x dx area of a circle
0
= [− cos x]20 π The area of circle of radius r is πr 2 .
= ( −1) − ( −1) = 0 sq unit
Again, let x = f ( y) be a continuous
function defined on [c, d]. Then, the O r
area under the curve x = f ( y), the
y-axis and abscissa y = c and y = d is
given by
d Circle
Area = ∫c f ( y) dy
A
area of a convex polygon 18
B C
area of a convex polygon
The area of a convex polygon
having vertices ( x1 , y1 ); ( x 2 , y 2 ); h

( x 3 , y 3 );...... ( x n , y n ) is
1 A b D
Area = [( x1 y 2 + x 2 y 3 + ....+ x n y1 )
2 area of a regular polygon
− ( y1 x 2 + y 2 x 3 + ....+ y n x1 )] The area of a regular polygon is
area of an ellipse 1
= (apothem)(perimeter)
The area of an ellipse 2
( x − h) 2 ( y − k) 2
+ =1
a2 b2 apothem
is πab.
area of an equilateral
triangle
Let n = number of sides
The area of an equilateral
s = length of a side
triangle having side length x is
x2 3 r = apothem
sq unit. (radius of inscribed circle)
4
A R = radius of circumcircle
60°
s

x x
r
60° 60°
R
B x C
equilateral triangle

area of a rectangle Then,

The area of rectangle is equal to (i) Sum of interior angles
breadth multiplied by length = (n − 2) × 180°
= bl n−2
A D (ii) Interior angle = × 180°
n
1
breadth (iii) Area = nsr
2
B C 1 180°
length (iv) r = × s × cot
where b is the breadth and l is the 2 n
1 180°
length of the rectangle. (v) R = × s × sec
2 n
area of a parallelogram 1 2 180°
(vi) Area = ns cot
The area of parallelogram of base b 2 n
and height h is 180°
= nr tan
2
= hb n
= ( AB)( AD) sin A 1 2 360°
= nR sin
= ( AB)( BC) sin B 2 n
A
19 area of a triangle

area of rhombus B A

For a rhombus given in figure, r r

θ
B s
C
d1
d2
s s
h
where θ is the central angle made
A s D by shaded arc AB.

Let s = side length of rhombus

area of a surface of
h = height of rhombus
revolution
d1 = long diagonal of rhombus Let y = f ( x) be a function such that
d 2 = short diagonal of rhombus f is continuous on [a , b] and
f ( x) ≥ 0, ∀ x ∈ ( a , b]. Then, the area
Then, Area = hs
of the surface obtained by rotating,
= s2 sin A the arc of the curve y = f ( x) about
= s2 sin B the x-axis between the abscissa
= (1 2) d1 d 2 x = a and x = b is
area of a sector of a b   dy  2 
circle = 2π ∫ y 1 +   dx
a  dx 
 
Area of shaded sector of a circle of b
radius r is or 2π ∫ [ f ( x) 1 + ( f ′( x)) 2 ]dx
a
1
= r 2θ radian area of trapezium
2
πr 2θ The area of trapezium with bases
= degree  b + b2 
360° b1 and b2 and height h is h  1 .
B  2 
b1
r A
θ
r h

b2

where θ is the central angle made area of a triangle

by minor arc AB. Several formula for the area of the
area of a segment of a triangle are given below
1
circle Area of triangle = bh
2
The area of the shaded segment of B
the circle of radius r is
1
= r 2 (θ − sin θ) radian a
2 c
h
1 2  πθ 
= r  − sin θ degree
2  180° 
C A
b
A
area using parr… 20
1 1 1 For example, the area of the region
= ab sin C = bc sin A = ac sin B
2 2 2 bounded by the graph of the
abc lemniscate r 2 = 2 cos θ , the origin
= rs =
4R π
and between the rays θ = − and
= s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) 6
π
(Heroe’s formula) θ = is given by
a+ b+ c 4
where, s =
2 θ = π/4
a , b and c are length of side of ∆ABC
opposite to the angles A , B and C ,
respectively
and r = radius of incircle
R = radius of circumcircle θ = –π/6
r2 = 2cos θ
area using parametric
β1 2
equations Area = ∫ r dθ
α 2
The area between the x-axis and the
π /4 1
graph x = x(t), y = y(t) and t = t1 to =∫ ( 2 cosθ) dθ
−π / 6 2
t = t 2 is given by
t2 = [sin θ]|π− π4 6
Area = ∫t ydx
 2   1
1

y-axis =   − − 
 2   2
x = x(t) y = y(t)
1+ 2
t = t1 t = t2 = sq units
2
argand plane
x-axis
O Any plane with a pair of mutually
area using polar perpendicular axes which is used to
coordinates represent complex numbers by
identifying the complex number
The area between the graph of x + iy with the point in the plane
r = r(θ) and the origin and also whose coordinates are ( x , y) is
between the rays θ = α and θ = β called argand plane.
(α ≤ β) is given by
β 1
imaginary axis
Area = ∫ r 2 dθ x (x + iy) = r(cos θ + isin θ)
α 2
y

θ=β r = r(θ) θ real axis

O
θ=α

The x-axis is called real axis and

y-axis is called imaginary axis.
A
21 arithmetic-geometric mean

argument (x) |z1 + z2|=|z1|+|z2|

In logic, a sequence of statements ⇒ arg (z1 ) = arg (z2 )
on proportion, starting with a set of (xi) |z1 + z2|2 =|z1|2 +|z2|2
premisses and ending with a z
⇒ 1 is a purely imaginary
conclusion. z2
argument of a complex argument of a function
number The variable term or expression on
Let z = x + iy is a complex number, which a function is operated is
then the argument of complex called argument of the function.
number is denoted by arg(z) or The argument of x is x and the
amp (z) and given by argument of ex−5 is x − 5. In general,
y the argument of f ( x) is x.
arg(z) = tan −1
x argument of a vector
The properties of argument of a The argument of a vector is the
complex number are given below angle describing the direction of a
(i) arg(z) = 0 ⇒ z is real. vector. The argument is measured
(ii) arg(z ) = − arg(z) as an angle in standard position.
(iii) arg(z1z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ) y
+ 2kπ
k = 0 or1 or − 1
argument angle
In general
arg(z1z2 ....zn ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ) x′ x
+ ...+ arg(zn ) + 2kπ O
k = 0or1or −1
(iv) arg(z1z2 ) = arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 )
z  vector
(v) arg  1  = arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 ) + 2kπ y′
 z2 
k = 0or1or −1 arithmetic
 z Arithmetic is the branch of algebra
(vi) arg   = 2 arg(z) + 2kπ ,
z dealing with integers or more
k = 0 or 1 or −1 generally, numerical computation.
Thus, it is the study of addition,
(vii) arg(z n ) = n arg(z) + 2kπ ,
subtraction, multiplication,
k = 0 or 1 or −1 division, power computation, root
z  and extraction.
(viii) arg  2  = θ
 z1  arithmetic-geometric
z  mean
⇒ arg  1  = 2kπ − θ , k ∈ I
 z2  The arithmetic-geometric mean of
two numbers a and b is the common
(ix) |z1 + z2|=|z1 − z2|
π limit of the sequences a1 , a2 ,... and
⇒ arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 ) = b1 , b2 ,... is given below :
2
A
arithmetic-geometric mean… 22
a+b arithmetic mean of n observations
a1 = , b1 = ab
2 x1 , x 2 ,..., x n is given by
a + b1 x1 + x 2 + .....+ x n
a2 = 1 , b2 = a1 b1
2 n
a + b2 This is also called average.
a3 = 2 , b3 = a2 b2
2 For example, the arithmetic mean
........................................ a+b
........................................ of two numbers a and b is .
2
etc.
arithmetic-geometric arithmetic progression
mean inequality A sequence is called an arithmetic
progression if the difference of a
The arithmetic mean of any number
term and the previous term is
of non-negative numbers is greater
than or equal to their geometric always same i. e., a sequence
mean i. e., a1 , a2 , a3 ,...., an ,... is called an
AM ≥ GM arithmetic sequence, if
Thus, for two number a and b an+1 − an = d (constant), ∀ n ∈ N.
a+b The constant difference d is called
≥ ab common difference of the
2
In general, forn observations x1 , x 2 , arithmetic progression. For
x 3 ,.... x n , we have example, 11, 7, 3, − 1 .... is an
x1 + x 2 + x 3 + ...+ x n n arithmetic progression whose
≥ x1 x 2 x 3 .... x n
n common difference is − 4.
The nth term of an arithmetic
arithmetic-geometric progression is
sequence Tn = a + (n − 1) d
If a1 , a2 , ...., an is an AP and where, n is the number of terms.
b1 , b2 ,...., bn is a GP, then the
arithmetic series
sequence a1 b1 , a2 b2 ,...., an bn is
called an arithmetic-geometric It a1 , a2 , a3 ,...., an is an arithmetic
sequence. sequence, then the series
a1 + a2 + a3 + .....+ an
Let the arithmetic-geometric series
is called arithmetic series.
be
a + ( a + d) r + ( a + 2d) r 2 + K. For example,
3 + 7 + 11 + 15 +....
Sum of n terms of this series is and 10 + 20 + 30 + ....
a d ⋅ r ⋅ (1 − r n − 1 ) are arithmetic series.
∴ Sn = +
1−r (1 − r) 2 The sum of an arithmetic series
{a + (n − 1) d}r n a1 + a2 + ....+ an is
− ,r ≠1 1
1 −r Sn = n[2a + (n − 1) d]
2
arithmetic mean 1
= [a1 + an ]
The arithmetic mean of a set of 2
observations is equal to the sum of where, n is the number of terms in
observations divided by the the series and d is the common
number of observations. The difference.
A
23 asymptotes

arm and ( a × b) × c = a × ( b × c).

One of the two lines forming an In the set of natural numbers,
angle of a geometric figure is called addition and multiplication have
arm. the associative property while
subtraction and division do not
arm of a right angled have the associative property.
triangle asymmetrical
Either of the sides in a right angled
A figure is called asymmetrical
triangle opposite to an acute angle
which cannot be divided into two
is called arm of a right angled
parts which are mirror images of
triangle. This is also called the leg
each other.
of the right angled triangle. The
legs are two shorter sides of the asymmetric relation
triangle. See Antisymmetric relation.
C
asymptotes
An asymptotes to a curve is a
hypotenuse
leg
straight line at a finite distance
from the origin to which the
tangent to a curve tends as the
point of contact goes to infinity.
A leg B The equations of two asymptotes of
right angle triangle
the hyperbola
asa congruence x2 y2
− = 1 are
When two triangles have a 2 b2
corresponding angles and sides b x y
that are congruent as shown below, y = ± x or ± =0
a a b
the triangles themselves are asa y
congruent. This is also called
angle-side-angle congruence. B
asymptotes
A C
x′ A′ A x
O x2 y2
– 2 =1
a 2
b
B′

y′
C B D E

Thus, ∆ABC ≅ ∆CDE read as The combined equation of the

‘‘ ∆ABC is a congruent to ∆CDE’ ’ . asymptotes of the hyperbola
x2 y2 x2 y2
associative property 2
− 2 = 1 is 2 − 2 = 0
a b a b
According to the associative A rectangular hyperbola
property for an operation, x 2 − y 2 = a 2 has asymptotes y = ± x
changing the grouping of the
which are at right angle. A
numbers does not change the result
hyperbola and its conjugate
of the operation. For example, hyperbola both have the same
( a + b) + c = a + ( b + c) asymptotes.
A
asymptotic series 24

asymptotic series x2 y2
+ =1
A divergent series a 2 b2
a a a is x + y = a2
2 2
a0 + 1 + 22 + ....+ nn + ....
x x x and the auxiliary circle of
is called asymptotic-series, where hyperbola
a0 , a1 , a2 ,..., an ..., are constants. This x2 y2
is an asymptotic representation of a − = 1 is x 2 − y 2 = a 2
function f ( x), if a 2 b2
This is used in obtaining the
lim x n [ f ( x) − Sn ( x)] = 0 , ∀ n parametric equations for the curve.
|x|→ ∞

where Sn is the sum of first n + 1 auxiliary differential

terms of the series. equation
augmented matrix Let us consider a second order
homogeneous linear differential
A matrix corresponding to a system equation
of non-homogeneous linear
d2y dy
equations a +b + cy = 0, a ≠ 0 ...( i)
a11 x1 + a12 x 2 + ....+ a1 n x n = b1 dx 2 dx
a21 x1 + a22 x 2 + ....+ a2 n x n = b2 The complementary function of
............................................. Eq. (i) is found by looking for the
............................................. solutions of the form y = eλn which
.............................................
gives
am1 x1 + am 2 x 2 + ....+ amn x n = bm
aλ2 + bλ + c = 0
obtained by adjoining to the matrix
This is called auxiliary equation of
of coefficients aij an additional
differential Eq. (i). In general the
column formed by the values of bj is
auxiliary equation of nth order
 a11 a12 K K a1 n K b1  homogeneous linear differential
a a22 K K a2 n K b2  equation
 21  d ny d n −1 y
 K K K K K K K a0 n + a1 n −1 + .....+ an y = 0
 K K K K K K K dx dx
  is a0λn + a1 λn −1 + ....+ an λ = 0
 K K K K K K K
a  average
 m1 am 2 K K amn K bm 
See arithmetic mean
known as augmented matrix.
average rate of change
This is used in solving a system of
non-homogeneous linear The change in the value of a
equations. quantity divided by the elapsed
time is called average rate of
auxiliary circle change. For a function, this is the
A circle which is made on the major change in the y-value divided by
axis or transversal axis of an ellipse the change in the x-value for two
or hyperbola as diameter is called distinct points on the graph. This is
an auxiliary circle of the ellipse. For the same thing as the slope of the
example, the auxiliary circle of secant line that passes through the
ellipse two points.
A
25 axis of symmetry

average value of a vertical line is called y-axis and the

function horizontal line is called x-axis.
For a function y = f ( x) over the An axis is an imaginary straight
domain [a , b], the average value line about which an object, like a
1 b planet, turns. For example, the
b − a ∫a
= f ( x) dx
Earth’s axis is a line that goes
y through the North and the South
y = f(x) poles.
The height of
his horizontal
axis of a cylinder
line is the The line formed by the centres of
average value
of the function.
the bases of a cylinder is called the
x′ x axis of the cylinder.
y′ a b

axiom
An axiom is a statement that is
assumed or accepted to be true as a
r
starting point for proving other de
y li n
axioms of probability. There are ac
of
is
three axioms of probability: ax
Cylinder
(i) The probability of an event is a
real number greater than or
equal to zero. axis of reflection
(ii) If two events cannot both occur
at the same time, the chance that The “minor line” of a reflection i. e.,
the line across which a reflection
either one occurs or the sum of
takes place is called the axis of
the chances that each occurs.
reflection.
(iii) The sum of the probabilities of
all the possible outcomes of a axis of symmetry
given experiment is 1. An axis of symmetry is a line about
axis (Pheral axes) which something is symmetrical.
For example, the diameter of a
An axis is a vertical or horizonal circle is an axis of symmetry for it.
line on a cartesian plane. The