MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES

AND DIRECTIONS
Bearings and Azimuths

Horizontal angles are angles measured in a horizontal plane by a

level instrument used to determine:
• the locations of points
• the orientation of lines

The units of measurement most commonly used in surveying is the

sexagesimal system based on degrees, minutes, seconds.
Bearings and Azimuths

BEARINGS
• Designate the direction of a line by an
angle and quadrant letters. (e.g. N30° E)
• Bearings are never greater than 90°
• Bearings are referenced from north or
south and the angle to the east or west
from the north-south meridian.
• True bearings are based on true north.
• Magnetic bearings are based on
magnetic north.
Forward and Back Bearing

• The direction will depend on which

end the line is observed. When the
bearing of a line is observed in the
direction in which the survey
progresses, it is referred to as a
forward bearing, if the bearing of
the same line is observed in an
opposite direction it is called back
bearing.
Bearings and Azimuths

AZIMUTHS
• Angles measured clockwise from
any reference meridian
• Azimuths range from 0 to 360°
• Azimuths are referenced from north
• True azimuths are based on true
north
• Magnetic azimuths are based on
magnetic north
Forward and Back Azimuth

• Rule 1 : If the forward

azimuth of the line is greater
than 180, subtract 180 to
obtain the back azimuth.

• Rule 2 : When the forward

azimuth of the line is less
than 180, add 180 to
determine the back azimuth.
Types of Angles

Interior angles
• located on the inside of a closed
polygon
• may be measured clockwise or
counterclockwise, but the direction
must be consistent throughout

Deflection angles
• are measured right or left from an
extension of the current line to the
next station
• are indicated by a numerical value
and a "L" or "R"
Magnetic Declination

• Magnetic declination, or magnetic

variation, is the angle on the horizontal
plane between magnetic north (the
direction the north end of a magnetized
compass needle points, corresponding
to the direction of the Earth's magnetic
field lines) and true north (the direction
along a meridian towards the
geographic North Pole). This angle
varies depending on position on the
Earth's surface and changes over time.
Magnetic Declination
Magnetic Declination

➢ Example
The magnetic declination in a locality is 230’E. Determine the true
bearing and true azimuths reckoned from north and south of the
following lines whose magnetic bearings are given.

A. AB, N 2540’E
B. AC, S 5012’ E
C. AD, S 6218’W
Magnetic Declination

➢ Example
A magnetic bearing of N 3430’ W was recorded on an old survey
dated November 10, 1950. It is desired to re-establish this direction
on site in 1977. The 1970 chart shows that the declination was 10W
for the area and with annual change of 3’eastward.
1. Determine the magnetic declination in year 1950.
2. Determine the true bearing of the line.
3. Determine the magnetic azimuth of the line in 1977.
4. Determine the magnetic bearing of the line in year 1980.
Traverse
Traverse
- A series of lines connecting successive points whose lengths and
directions have been determined from field measurements.
Traversing
- Process of measuring the lengths and direction of lines of a traverse for
the purpose of locating the position of certain points.
Traverse Station
- Any temporary or permanent point of reference over which the
instrument is set up. Traverse stations are sometimes called angle of
points.
Traverse Lines
- Lines connecting traverse stations and whose lengths and directions are
determined.
Traverse
Open Traverse
• a series of lines of known lengths and
directions which are continuous but do
not return to the starting point
Closed Traverse
• a series of lines of known lengths and
directions which return or close back to
the point of beginning or at points whose
positions have been fixed by other
surveys of higher precision.
Local Attraction and Best Line
While compass surveying, the magnetic needle is sometimes disturbed from its
normal position under the influence of external attractive forces. Such a
disturbing influence is called as local attraction. This is due to local influences
such as the proximity of steel, iron, magnetic ores, and direct electric current.

Best line is a line in a traverse which appears to be free from local attraction. It is
also on this line where the adjustment of the remaining traverse lines affected by
local attraction is started.
Adjustment of an Open Compass Traverse

Steps:
1. Determine which among the traverse lines is free from local
attraction.
2. Perform the adjustment of successive lines by starting from
either end of the selected line. The unaffected line is referred to
as the “best line” and it is assumed that there is no local
attraction anywhere on this line. Also, forward and back
bearings taken at either end of the line are accepted as correct.
Adjustment of an Open Compass Traverse
➢ Example
Given in the tabulation below are the observed forward and back
bearings of an open compass traverse. Plot the traverse and adjust
the forward and back bearings of each course.
Line Length Observed Bearings
Forward Back
AB 400.63 N 2545’ E S 2540’ W
BC 450.22 S 2030’ E N 2025’ W
CD 500.89 S 3530’ W N 3530’ E
DE 640.46 S 7530’ E N 7525’ W
EF 545.41 N 5850’ E S 5815’ W
FG 700.05 N 2205’ E S 2255’ W
Angular Error of Closure

The angular error of closure for a

closed traverse is the difference
between the sum of the computed
interior angles and the quantity
(n-2)*180°, where “n” is the
number of sides in the traverse.
Adjustment of an Open Compass Traverse
➢ Example
The following are observed bearings of a closed compass traverse.
Compute the interior angles and correct them for observational
errors and adjust the bearings of the sides.
Line Length Observed Bearings
Forward Back
AB 46.50 S 3040’ W N 3040’ E
BC 75.15 S 8350’ E N 8430’ W
CD 117.35 N 0200’ W S 0215’ E
DE 74.92 S 8930’ W Due East
EA 60.25 S 2850’ E N 2800’ W
Latitude and Departure

Latitude = Distance x Cosine of Bearing

Lat = d x cos θ

Departure = Distance x Sine of Bearing

Dep = d x sin θ

Sign Convention:
North Latitude & East Departure are positive
South Latitude & West Departure are negative
Latitude and Departure
➢Example
Given in the tabulation below are notes for an open traverse.
Determine the latitude and departure at each course and tabulate
observed and computed values accordingly.

COURSE DISTANCE BEARING

AB 550.30 m N 2810’ E
BC 395.48 m S 6935’ E
CD 462.70 m S 2750’ E
Linear Error of Closure

Linear Error of Closure:

LEC
RP = LEC/PERIMETER
Linear Error of Closure
➢Example
From the field notes of a closed traverse shown below.
LINE BEARING DISTANCE
A-B Due North 400 m
B-C N 45 E 800 m
C-D S 60 E 700 m
D-E S 20 W 600 m
E-A S 8659’ W 966.34 m

1. Compute the linear error of closure.

2. Compute the relative error or precision.
Correction of Linear Error of Closure/
Balancing a Traverse
1. Compass Rule/Bowditch’s Method
- The correction to be applied in the latitude or departure of any
course is proportional to the ratio of the distance or length of
the course to the length of the traverse.

DistanceAB
Corrected LATAB = LATAB - ( )x eLAT
Total Distance

DistanceAB
Corrected DEPAB = DEPAB - ( )x eDEP
Total Distance
Correction of Linear Error of Closure/
Balancing a Traverse
2. Transit Rule
- The correction to be applied in the latitude or departure of any
course is proportional to the ratio of the latitude or departure of
the course to the arithmetic sum of all the latitudes or
departures in the traverse without regards to the sign.

|LATAB |
Corrected LATAB = LATAB - x eLAT
Total LAT

|DEPAB |
Corrected DEPAB = DEPAB - x eDEP
Total DEP
Correction of Linear Error of Closure
Example:
Given the following data of a closed traverse.
Line Bearing Distance (m)
1-2 N 76°00’ E 80.40
2-3 S 36°00’ E 46.30
3-4 S 61°00’ W 72.80
4-1 N 38°00’ W 68.00

Using Compass Rule and Transit Rule:

a. Determine the correct bearing of line 2-3.
b. Determine the correct distance of line 2-3.
Area of Closed Traverse
Double Meridian Distance (DMD)
1. DMD of the first course is equal to the departure of that course.
2. DMD of any other course is equal to the DMD of the preceding
course, plus the departure of the preceding course, plus the
departure of the course itself.
3. DMD of the last course is numerically equal to the departure of
the last course but opposite in sign.
Area of Closed Traverse

Line Lat Dep DMD 2A = DMD x Lat

AB +35.51 +48.05

BC -27.61 +64.73

CD -66.94 -37.31

DA +58.94 -75.47
Area of Closed Traverse

Line Lat Dep DMD 2A = DMD x Lat

AB +35.51 +48.05 +48.05 + 1706.26

BC -27.61 +64.73 +160.83 - 4440.52

CD -66.94 -37.31 +188.25 -12601.46

DA +58.94 -75.47 +75.47 + 4448.20

2A = 10, 887.52
A = 5, 443.76
Area of Closed Traverse
Double Parallel Distance (DPD)
1. DPD of the first course is equal to the latitude of that course.
2. DPD of any other course is equal to the DPD of the preceding
course, plus the latitude of the preceding course, plus the
latitude of the course itself.
3. DPD of the last course is numerically equal to the latitude of the
last course but opposite in sign.
Area of Closed Traverse

Line Lat Dep DPD 2A = DPD x Dep

1–2 -18.63 -11.77
2–3 +8.03 -5.96
3–4 +4.81 -1.36
4–1 +5.79 +19.09
Area of Closed Traverse

Line Lat Dep DPD 2A = DPD x Dep

1–2 -18.63 -11.77 -18.63 +219.275
2–3 +8.03 -5.96 -29.23 +174.211
3–4 +4.81 -1.36 -16.39 +22.290
4–1 +5.79 +19.09 -5.79 -110.531

2A = 305.245
A = 152.622