Writing A Research Paper
Writing A Research Paper
Writing Center / Dr. Karen Lee, M.F.A., Ph.D.
“Faith and knowledge resting on the hope of eternal life” (NIV, Titus 1.2).
Stages of Researched Writing
• Choosing and Narrowing a Topic
• Gathering Material: Note‐taking &
Avoiding Plagiarism
• Annotated Bibliography
• Thesis Statement
• Types of Argument
• Outline
• Integrating Secondary Sources: Direct
Quotation, Paraphrasing, Summarizing
• Research Citation Styles
• Works Cited Page
• Title
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Choosing and Narrowing a Topic
Choose a topic that satisfies your assignment’s
requirements. Focus your choice for topical
specificity.
General: Birds.
Focused: The effect of deforestation on endangered
bird populations in Paraguay.
Focused: Symbolism associated with Eppie
concerning themes of love and redemption in
George Eliot’s novel Silas Marner.
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Gathering Material
• Note‐taking
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Types of Sources
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Note‐Taking
When taking notes, be sure to
cite your sources carefully
(author, title, page numbers,
publisher, publication date) and
mention whether you are
quoting the source verbatim
(direct quotation) or
summarizing a source’s ideas in
your own words.
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Some Note‐Taking Methods
• Typing notes on the computer.
• Using note cards.
• Handwriting notes into a
binder.
• Using a dictaphone (useful for
aural learners).
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Avoiding Plagiarism
Precise note‐taking should help
you avoid unintentional plagiarism,
since you’ll keep secondary source
information clearly distinct from
your original thoughts. If the idea is
not common knowledge (“the sun
rises and also sets”), or not the
product of your original thought
processes, then cite it.
Tip: If in doubt, cite!
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Types of Sources
• Peer‐Reviewed/Scholarly/Refereed sources
are by professional experts in the field.
Examples: Publication of the Modern
Language Association, Cell, Journal of the
American Medical Association.
• General‐audience sources are for non‐
experts. They are written in non‐technical,
accessible language. Examples:
Cosmopolitan, Newsweek, Better Homes &
Gardens, and many Google‐able and
Yahoo‐able websites.
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Peer‐Reviewed/Refereed/Scholarly
Sources: A Few Examples
• Electronic Sources:
On‐line articles from our
library’s subscription
databases such as JSTOR and
ProQuest.
• Print Sources:
Journal articles, books.
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Source Credibility
Not all sources are credible
or reliable sources. As you
examine books and periodicals,
on‐line or in print, you need to
decide which sources are
relevant and credible.
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Source Evaluation Questions
Ask yourself the following
questions to determine a source’s
level of credibility: When was the
source published? What are the
author’s credentials? Who’s the
intended audience? Is the argument
balanced or does it show bias and
make unsupported claims, illogical
conclusions, or inaccurate
generalizations? Lastly, what sorts
of references does your source cite?
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A Mnemonic Device from
Dr. Robert Harris: A Good Way
to Remember the Previous Slide
“CAAAR”=
Currency
Authorship
Audience
Argument
References
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Annotated Bibliography
An annotated bibliography is a
survey of sources relating to your
narrowed topic. It looks like a
works cited page, but each
bibliographic entry is followed by a
paragraph or two of written
commentary: What the source is
about, how it relates to your topic,
how you might use it in your
research paper, and any strengths
and weaknesses in the source.
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Sample Annotated Entry
Gardner, Howard. Creating Minds. New York: Basic Books, 1993.
In this book‐length analysis of creativity through the lens of
multiple intelligence (MI) theory, Gardner focuses upon the
development of seven leaders in their fields, beginning with
childhood developmental patterns: Martha Graham, T.S. Eliot,
Gandhi, Pablo Picasso, Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, and
Igor Stravinsky through the paradigm of multiple
intelligences. Critics of Gardner’s paradigm say that limiting
multiple intelligence to seven or eight basic types in turn limits
the spectrum of human creative potential. On the other hand,
Gardner’s cohorts defend this model’s usefulness in
destabilizing old‐school notions of intelligence such as
Stanford‐Binet standardized tests and the monolithic concept
of a quantifiable intelligence quotient. This source is useful as
a primary text for my paper on multiple intelligences. Since
this a primary text for MI by Gardner himself, however, it is
naturally biased in favor of Gardner’s theory, although it does
situate MI among various other psychological models of
creativity in a well‐balanced introduction.
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Thesis Statement
• Answers the question, “What is this paper
trying to prove to its audience?”
• Compresses the critical crux of your paper
into one sentence.
• Conveys your main argument in a nutshell.
• Uses specific language and specific ideas.
• Generates a multi‐faceted argument.
• Appears in your paper’s introduction or
abstract.
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Thesis Statement Examples
• Interaction fosters collaborative learning.
• A working student’s life, bifurcated into the
corporate world and the classroom,
demonstrates how these dual roles enhance
rather than detract from one another.
• Contrary to popular belief, ice cream is not
junk food because it is a good source of
calcium and milk protein.
• While Christianity and Christian Science
may appear to share superficial similarities,
a closer examination reveals many
differences concerning beliefs about Jesus,
concepts of salvation, and the Bible’s
authority.
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Types of Argument
• Cause and Effect
• Comparison and Contrast
• Toulmin Argument
• Rogerian Argument
• Refutation
• Recommendation
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Cause and Effect
A cause and effect argument
uses “if‐then” and “because”
statements to show how
certain past and present
problems or incidents have
resulted or will result in
specific consequences.
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Comparison and Contrast
When you compare and contrast two items,
organize the paper’s ideas point by point to
show what you’re trying to prove about
their similarities and differences. Do not
summarize one item then summarize the
next, leading to an unconnected reportage
of facts rather than an analytical discussion.
Use comparison‐contrast transitions to
guide your analysis: “likewise,”
“similarly,” “along the same lines,” “in
contrast,” “on the other hand,” “by
comparison,” “on the contrary.”
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Example of Point‐by‐Point
Comparison & Contrast
Apples vs. Lemons
Point #1: Type of fruit
(pome vs. citrus)
Point #2: Type of taste
(sweet vs. sour)
Point #3: Type of Color
(red, green, yellow
vs. just yellow)
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Toulmin Argument:
Thesis/Claim/Warrant/Support
This is the conventional form of
argument built on a thesis with sub‐
claims supported by evidence,
grounds, or data; claims are linked
logically to supporting material by
warrants. Qualifiers make
concessions, showing exceptions to
the thesis and its sub‐claims.
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Rogerian Argument: Don’t Pick
Fights with Your Audience
The Rogerian model acknowledges
the audience’s point of view or
opinions before presenting the
author’s different or opposing
viewpoint . A Rogerian argument
supports the central argument with
tact – without outright attacking the
audience’s preconceived notions.
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Refutation
Refutation or the rhetorical
figure called “procatalepsis”
means anticipating and
refuting possible
counterarguments: “One may
argue that . . . However, a
closer look reveals the contrary
. . . .”
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Recommendation
Argument of recommendation gives
enough background to contextualize
an analysis of past and current
problems leading to a justifiable
recommendation or proposed
solution and course of action. Use
cause‐effect statements such as “if‐
then” and “because.”
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Outline
• An outline is a roadmap for your
research paper.
• Your research paper should have
several basic parts: Introduction,
main body (several paragraphs,
depending on paper length),
conclusion, and works cited page.
• Depending upon your field, your
paper may also need a title page,
abstract, methods section, summary
of results, or appendices and other
sections.
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Sample Partial Outline
I. Thesis Statement / Introduction
A. Fruit meanings in Judeo‐Christian culture
B. Fruit symbolism in OT
C. Fruit symbolism in NT
II. Fruit in the Bible
A. Garden of Eden: Genesis 3
1. Literal or figurative?
2. Tree of Knowledge (Good/Evil)
3. Transgression/Forbidden Fruit
B. Vine and Branches: John 15
1. Abiding in the Vine
2. Branches Cut Off vs. Grafted Branches
C. Fruit of the Spirit: Paul to Galatians 5
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Integrating Secondary Sources
• Direct Quotation
• Paraphrasing
• Summarizing
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Direct Quotation
Directly quoting means typing one
or two sentences verbatim from a
source. Set up direct quotations
with phrases of your own to guide
your flow of discussion. Use
quotation marks (“ ”) to set off
directly quoted material from your
own words, and either footnote or
parenthetically document the work
at the end of the sentence, using the
research citation format your
assignment requires.
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Example: Direct Quotation
Reflecting upon the role of books in shaping
her childhood among missionaries, Ruth Bell
Graham writes, “I was born and raised in
China, and books were just a part of our
life . . . . Reading was a very early love”
(Graham 27).
Tips: Be sure to use the proper research citation format
for parenthetical documentation. Use ellipses
sparingly in omitting quoted material: Readers will
get suspicious if it looks like you omitted a lot of
material. If you need to quote three or more sentences,
use blocked quotation format, but don’t use blocked
quotations just to “pad” or lengthen a paper.
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Quotation No‐Nos!
• NO dropped quotations or quoting
without proper context presented by
your own thoughtful phrasing.
• NO traffic‐jam quoting or choo‐choo
train quoting where several direct
quotations are strung together, one
after another, without discussion.
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Paraphrasing
A paraphrase is your
“translation” of the source text
into your own words. Unlike a
summary, which is shorter
than the source text, a
paraphrase is about the same
length.
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Summarizing
A summary condenses the
ideas in a source text into a
briefer version. Unlike a
paraphrase, which is about as
long as the source text, a
summary is shorter in length.
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Research Citation Styles
You need to choose a research citation
style depending upon your professor’s
requirements.
The point of conforming to a research
citation style is to participate in consistent
professional standards for how information
is researched, published, and circulated
within a field. In addition, the details of
source citation help other scholars who may
want to pursue research based on your
written work.
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Some Research Citation Styles
• APA (American Psychological
Association)
• ASA (American Sociological
Association)
• Chicago Style, Turabian Style
• MLA (Modern Language
Association)
• SBL (Society of Biblical Literature)
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Works Cited or Bibliography
Depending upon the citation style
required for your assignment, your works
cited or bibliography page (listing all
sources referenced in your research paper)
needs to conform to specific guidelines in
your citation style’s handbook.
Please note that several of the following
examples require hanging indentation (all
lines indented except the first of each
bibliographic entry).
Entries are listed in alphabetical order.
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Example: APA
(American Psychological
Association)
Arnaud, J. (1991). Theories of
psychology. Psychoanalytic
Quarterly, 77, 5‐22.
Freire, U. (1998). Pentecostalism and
African American literature.
Literature and Psychoanalysis, 17, 119‐
103. Retrieved February 2, 2001,
ProQuest database
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Example: ASA
(American Sociological
Association)
Arnaud, Jameson. 1991. “Theories of
Sociology.” Sociological Quarterly
77: 317‐392.
Freire, U. 1998. “Pentecostalism and
African American literature.”
Literature and Ethnic Studies 17(1):
119‐130. Retrieved November 1,
2001. Available: SilverPlatter
database (Literature Abstracts, CD‐
Rom, Lit Item 1424, Spring 1999
release).
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Example: MLA
(Modern Language Association)
Brooks, Gwendolyn. “The Rise of Maud
Martha.” Invented Lives: Narratives of Black
Women 1860‐1960. Ed. Mary Helen
Washington. New York: Anchor‐
Doubleday, 1984. 429‐32.
Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind. New
York: Basic Books, 1993.
Nebbitts, Analee. Home page. 1 May 1998. 2
March 1999 <http://www.analee.com> .
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Example:
Chicago‐Turabian Style
Gardner, Howard. Frames of
Mind. New York: Basic Books,
1993.
Tolbert, Janice and Gregg Watts.
“Patriotism.” Newsweek, 30
June 1997, 51‐52.
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Example: SBL
(Society of Biblical Literature)
Footnote: 67 Duane F. Watson, “False Apostles,”
n.p., ABD on CD‐Rom. Version 2.0c. 1995,
1996.
Bibliography: Use hanging indentation.
Watson, Duane F. “False Apostles.” The Anchor
Bible Dictionary on CD‐Rom. Logos Library
System Version 2.0c. 1995, 1996. Print ed.:
David Noel Freedman, ed. Anchor Bible
Dictionary. 6 vols. New York: Doubleday,
1992.
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Title
Choose an original and appropriate title for
your research paper. Examples from actual
articles retrieved from ProQuest:
• Art of Forgiveness
• Forgiveness as Human Strength: Theory,
Measurement, and Links to Well‐Being
• Forgiveness: A Path to a Better You
• Tender and Tough: Praying for Enemies
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Final Thoughts
Writing a college research paper is a process‐
oriented activity that encourages independent
learning. Gathering notes, organizing them,
shaping your thoughts, and writing a paper
should give you a strong sense of satisfaction.
Allow yourself plenty of time to brainstorm,
research, plan, and write.
Writing a research paper has its own rewards:
You’ll remember what you wrote about long
after you’ve graduated from college, and you’ll
retain the valuable practice of independent
critical thinking along with the lifelong ability to
synthesize and communicate information.
Writing is for life . . . . 1 Corinthians 15.58.
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The Writing Center
For more help with researched writing, contact
the Writing Center.
• Where: 2nd Floor of Scott Academic Center
• When: 8 a.m. to 5 p.m., Mon. through Fri.
• How: Drop by in person, call x426, or
e‐mail Dr. Lee at <[email protected]>.
• What else: Thanks for your interest in our
resources!
“Faith and knowledge resting on the hope
of eternal life” (NIV, Titus 1.2).
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