LOGIC 003 / HUM 002

Prof. Clara Teresa Gene E. Portes

Faculty Operation
Mental Mental Product External
Operation Signs
Simple Concept/Ideas/ Term
Apprehension Thoughts
Judgment Enunciation Proposition
Reasoning Argument Syllogism
Inference
oReasoning is a special mental activity called
making inferences.
e.g. You see smoke and infer that there is a
fire.
You count 19 persons in a group that
originally had 20, and you infer that
someone is missing.

oTo infer is to draw conclusions from premise/s.

Inference and Arguments
It is the process by which one proposition is arrived at and
affirmed on the basis of one or more other propositions
accepted.
e.g. There were 20 persons originally.
There are 19 persons at this moment.
Therefore, someone is missing.

o There is an argument corresponding to every possible

inference.
Making inferences: reading
between the lines
A: Look at the long line! Do you think we’ll get in?
B: I think so, some of these people have tickets already.
A: How much are the tickets?
B: Only PhP 350 for the first show. I’ll pay.
A: Thanks. I’ll buy the popcorn.

Where are these people?

What are they talking about?
Who are these people?
Making inferences: reading
between the lines
A: This is one of the reasons I hate working in a big city.
B: I know. Everyday, it’s the same thing.
A: This is terrible! We may be here all night!
B: I hope we don’t run out of gas.
A: Let’s turn on the radio. I need some good music.
B: Sorry, the radio’s not working.
A: I think I’ll take the train tomorrow.

Where are these people? What are they talking about? What do you
think will happen next?
Choose the logical inference
based on the sentence.
1. Blood cholesterol used to be thought of
as a problem only for adults.
a. Blood cholesterol is no longer a problem
for adults.
b. Only children have a problem with blood
cholesterol.
c. Blood cholesterol affects both adults and
children.
Making inferences: reading
between the lines
2. Although sheepherding is an older and more
beloved occupation, shepherds never caught the
attention of American filmmakers the way cowboys
did.
a. There have been more American films about
cowboys than about shepherds.
b. Films about shepherds were popular before films
about cowboys.
c. Cowboys are generally younger than shepherds.
3.2 What Is an Argument?
A Claim Defended with Reasons.
Argument - A form of thinking in which certain statements (reasons) are offered in
support of another statement (a conclusion).
Premises (Reasons) - Statements that support another statement (known as a
conclusion), justify it, or make it more probable.
Conclusion - A statement that explains, asserts, or predicts on the basis of
statements (known as reasons) that are offered as evidence for it.
3.2 Example – A Simple
Argument
1. Lawyers earn a lot of money. (Premise)
2. I want to earn a lot of money. (Premise)
3. I should become a Lawyer. (Conclusion)
3.4 What Is Not an Argument?
An argument is a claim defended with reasons.
More precisely, a passage is an argument if and only if:

It is a group of two or more statements.

One of those statements (the conclusion) is claimed or
intended to be supported by the other(s) (the premises).
3.4 What Is Not an Argument?
Notice three important things that follow from this definition:

◦ Arguments consist entirely of statements (sentences that it makes sense to

regard as either true or false). Questions, commands, and other kinds of non-
statements cannot be parts of arguments (Keep in mind, however, that
rhetorical questions should be treated as statements.).

◦ No single statement is an argument. Arguments always consist of at least two

statements.

◦ Nothing counts as an argument unless it is claimed or intended that one

statement follows from one or more other statements in the passage. In other
words, a passage is an argument only if the speaker or writer intends to offer
evidence or reasons why another statement should be accepted as true.
3.4 What Is Not an Argument?
Five kinds of passages that are sometimes confused with arguments are:

Reports A statement or group of statements intended simply

to convey information about a subject.
Unsupported Is a statement or set of statements in which the
statements of belief or speaker or writer expresses his or her personal
opinions opinion, but offers no reasons or evidence to back up
that opinion.
Illustrations Is a passage intended to provide examples that
illustrate or support a claim, not to provide convincing
evidence that the claim is true.
Conditional Statements Is an if-then statement. It is an assertion that such-
and-such is true if something else is true.
Explanations Is a statement or set of statements that seeks to
provide an account of why something has occurred or
why something is the case.
3.4 Example: Report
Planet Earth was much drier in the Triassic than it is now, and there were
large deserts in inland areas. There were no flowering plants or grasses--
they evolved much later. The most common trees were conifers, similar
to today's pines. Other large plants included yews, ginkgos, and the
palmlike cycads. Moisture-loving ferns and horsetails thrived by lakes and
rivers.

(Philip Whitfield, Simon & Schuster's Children's Guide to Dinosaurs and Other Prehistoric Animals, 1992)
3.4 Example: Unsupported statements of belief or
opinion

For the person who called and said Larry Bird was better than Michael
Jordan, wake up. No one was ever better than Michael Jordan, not
even Kareem in his glory and not even Dr. J.

(From a newspaper call-in column)

3.4 Example: Illustration
Almost all groups agree in holding other groups to be inferior to
themselves. The American Indians looked upon themselves as the
chosen people, specially created by the Great Spirit as an uplifting
example for mankind. One Indian tribe called itself "The Only Men";
another called itself "Men of Men"; the Caribs said, "We alone are
people."

(Will Durant, Our Oriental Heritage, 1935)

3.4 Example: Conditional
Statement
If Aida comes to the wedding then I will come to the wedding.
3.4 Example: Explanation
I speak good English because my parents
encouraged me to practice it everyday.
3.3 Identifying Premises &
Conclusions
TIPS
Look for premise indicators that provide clues when
premises are being offered.
Examples: because, since, for, given that, as, judging from,
and seeing that.

Look for conclusion indicators that provide clues when

conclusions are being offered.
Examples: therefore, thus, hence, so, as a result,
accordingly, consequently, and which shows that.
3.3 Identifying Premises &
Conclusions
TIPS
If the passage contains no indicator words, try these
two strategies:
◦ Ask yourself, "What claim is the writer or speaker trying to prove?" That claim will
be the conclusion.
◦ Try putting the word "therefore" before each of the statements in turn. The
statement it fits best will be the conclusion.
3.3 Exercise 1
Make a will. Otherwise, the state
will determine who gets your stuff.
(Andrew Tobias, "Isn't It Time You Faced the Future?" 2001)

Identify the
premise(s)
and
conclusion of
this
argument.
3.3 Exercise 2
Research universities also must aggressively
support teaching. After all, a significant
percentage of their students are
undergraduates, and such institutions are
clearly obligated to provide them a quality
education.
Ernest L. Boyer, Scholarship Reconsidered, 1990)

Identify the
premise(s) and
conclusion of
this argument.
3.3 Exercise 3
No one who observes people can pretend
that in fact they always seek anything like
their own long-run advantage. If this were the
case only stupidity could explain how
frequently and obviously they act contrary to
their own long-run advantage. People are not
that stupid!
(Charles Hartshorne and Creighton Peden, Whitehead's View of Reality, 1981)

Identify the
premise(s) and
conclusion of
this argument.
3.3 Exercise 4
We have good reason to believe that people will exist in the future and
that they will be similar enough to us that we can have a good idea of
what their well-being requires. Knowing this and knowing that our
present actions can influence their future well-being, it is reasonable to
conclude that future people must be given some ethical consideration
by presently living human beings.

(Joseph R. DesJardins, Environmental Ethics: An Introduction to Environmental Philosophy, 3rd ed., 2001)

Identify the
premise(s) and
conclusion of
this argument.
Inference : What is Reasoning?
Reasoning is a special mental activity called Inferring.
Inferring to infer is to draw conclusions from premises
Examples:
◦ One sees a school and infers that, there are students
◦ One counts 19 prisoners in Bilibid prison that originally had 20, and one infers that
someone is missing.

Note: There are difference between ‘infer’ and ‘imply’

We infer the students on the basis of those seen in school, but we do not imply the
students.
The school implies the students.
Inference : What is Reasoning?
The following arguments is given as follows:
Example: School-student inference
1. There is a school. (Premise)
Therefore, there are students. (Conclusion)

Example: missing – prisoner inference

2. There were 20 prisoners originally. (premise)
There are 19 prisoners currently. (Premise)
Therefore, someone is missing. (Conclusion)
Summary
1. Distinguishing Fact = Can be proved or disproved
Fact & Opinion Opinion = Personal Belief

2. What is an Argument? An argument is a claim defended with reasons.

3. Identifying Premises Look for premise indicators that provide clues when
premises are being offered (e.g. because, since, for).
& Conclusions
Look for conclusion indicators that provide clues when
conclusions are being offered (e.g. therefore, thus,
hence, so).
If the passage contains no indicator words, try these
two strategies: 1) Ask yourself, "What claim is the writer
or speaker trying to prove?" That claim will be the
conclusion. 2)Try putting the word "therefore" before
each of the statements in turn. The statement it fits
best will be the conclusion.
4. What Is Not Five kinds of passages that are sometimes confused
with arguments are: Reports, Unsupported statements
an Argument?
of belief or opinions, Illustrations, Conditional
Statements, and Explanations
Inductive vs.
Deductive
Reasoning
Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning
The difference:
inductive reasoning uses patterns to arrive at a
conclusion (conjecture)

deductive reasoning uses facts, rules, definitions

or properties to arrive at a conclusion.
•Inductive reasoning - Think of it like a
We start with specifics and move to generalities

•Deductive reasoning – think of it like a

We start with generalities and move to specifics.
Examples of Inductive Reasoning
Some examples

1) Every quiz has been easy. Therefore, the test

will be easy.
2) The teacher used PowerPoint in the last few
classes. Therefore, the teacher will use
PowerPoint tomorrow.
3) Every fall there have been hurricanes in the
tropics. Therefore, there will be hurricanes in
the tropics this coming fall.
Deductive Reasoning
An Example:

The catalog states that all entering

freshmen must take a mathematics
placement test.
You are an entering
freshman.
Conclusion: You will have to take a
mathematics placement test.
Inductive or Deductive Reasoning?
Geometry example…

What is the measure of angle x?

x

Triangle sum property -

60◦ the sum of the angles of
any triangle is always
180 degrees. Therefore,
angle x = 30°
Inductive or Deductive Reasoning?
Geometry example…

What is the next shape in the sequence?

90% of humans are right
handed. Joe is human,
therefore Joe has a very high
chance of being right handed.
DEDUCTIVE
You are a good student.
You get all A’s
Therefore your friends must get all A’s too
All oranges are fruits. All fruits
grow on trees
Therefore, all oranges
grow on trees

DEDUCTIVE