ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

DR. TEHMINA FIAZ QAZI

Robbins & Judge
Organizational Behavior
Chapter 1: What Is Organizational Behavior?

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Chapter Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
Demonstrate the importance of interpersonal skills in the
workplace.
Describe the managers functions, roles, and skills.
Define organizational behavior (OB).
Show the value to OB of systematic study.
Identify the major behavioral science disciplines that
contribute to OB.
Demonstrate why there are few absolutes in OB.
Identify the challenges and opportunities managers have in
applying OB concepts.
Compare the three levels of analysis in this books OB model.

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The Importance of Interpersonal Skills
Understanding OB helps determine manager
effectiveness
Technical and quantitative skills important
But leadership and communication skills are
CRITICAL
Organizational benefits of skilled managers
Lower turnover of quality employees
Higher quality applications for recruitment
Better financial performance

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What Managers Do
They get things done through other people.
Management Activities:
Make decisions
Allocate resources
Direct activities of others to attain goals
Work in an organization
A consciously coordinated social unit composed of two
or more people that functions on a relatively continuous
basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals.

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Four Management Functions
PLAN
A process that includes defining goals, establishing
strategy, and developing plans to coordinate
activities.
ORGANIZE
Determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do
them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports
to whom, and where decisions are to be made.

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Four Management Functions
LEAD
A function that includes motivating employees,
directing others, selecting the most effective
communication channels, and resolving conflicts.
CONTROL
Monitoring performance, comparing actual
performance with previously set goals, and
correcting any deviation.

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Mintzbergs Managerial Roles
Ten roles in three groups (Exhibit 1-1)
Interpersonal
Figurehead, Leader, and Liaison
Informational
Monitor, Disseminator, Spokesperson
Decisional
Entrepreneur, Disturbance Handler, Resource
Allocator, and Negotiator.

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Katzs Essential Management Skills
Technical Skills
The ability to apply specialized knowledge or
expertise
Human Skills
The ability to work with, understand, and motivate
other people, both individually and in groups
Conceptual Skills
The mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex
situations
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Luthans Study of Managerial Activities
Four types of managerial activity:
Traditional Management
Decision-making, planning, and controlling.
Communication
Exchanging routine information and processing paperwork
Human Resource Management
Motivating, disciplining, managing conflict, staffing and training.
Networking
Socializing, politicking, and interacting with others.

Managers who promoted faster (were successful) did different

things than did effective managers (those who did their jobs
well) see Exhibit 1-2.

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Organizational Behavior

A field of study that investigates the impact that

individuals, groups, and structure have on
behavior within organizations, for the purpose of
applying such knowledge toward improving an
organizations effectiveness.

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Intuition and Systematic Study
Intuition
Gut feelings
Individual observation
Common sense
Systematic Study
Looks at relationships
Scientific evidence
Predicts behaviors
The two are complementary means of predicting
behavior.

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An Outgrowth of Systematic Study
Evidence-Based Management (EBM)
Basing managerial decisions on the best available
scientific evidence.
Must think like scientists:
Pose a managerial question
Search for best available evidence
Apply relevant information to case

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Managers Should Use All Three
Approaches
The trick is to know when to go with your gut.
Jack Welsh
Intuition is often based on inaccurate information
Faddism is prevalent in management
Systematic study can be time-consuming

Use evidence as much as possible to inform your

intuition and experience. That is the promise of OB.

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Four Contributing Disciplines
Psychology
The science that seeks to measure, explain, and
sometimes change the behavior of humans and
other animals.
Unit of Analysis:
Individual
Contributions to OB:
Learning, motivation, personality, emotions, perception
Training, leadership effectiveness, job satisfaction
Individual decision making, performance appraisal, attitude
measurement
Employee selection, work design, and work stress

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Four Contributing Disciplines
Social Psychology
An area within psychology that blends concepts
from psychology and sociology and that focuses on
the influence of people on one another.
Unit of Analysis:
Group
Contributions to OB:
Behavioral change
Attitude change
Communication
Group processes
Group decision making

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Four Contributing Disciplines
Sociology
The study of people in relation to their fellow
human beings.
Unit of Analysis:
Organizational System
Group

Contributions to OB:
Group dynamics Formal organization theory
Work teams Organizational technology
Communication Organizational change
Power Organizational culture
Conflict
Intergroup behavior
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Four Contributing Disciplines
Anthropology
The study of societies to learn about human
beings and their activities.
Unit of Analysis:
-- Organizational System -- Group

Contributions to OB:
Organizational culture Comparative values
Organizational environment Comparative attitudes
Cross-cultural analysis

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Challenges and Opportunities for OB
Responding to Globalization
Managing Workforce Diversity
Improving Quality and Productivity
Improving Customer Service
Improving People Skills
Stimulating Innovation and Change
Coping with Temporariness
Working in Networked Organizations
Helping Employees Balance Work-Life Conflicts
Creating a Positive Work Environment
Improving Ethical Behavior

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Challenges and Opportunities for OB
Responding to Globalization
Increased foreign assignments
Working with people from different cultures
Coping with anti-capitalism backlash
Overseeing movement of jobs to countries with low-cost labor
Managing people during the war on terror
Managing Workforce Diversity
The people in organizations are becoming more heterogeneous
demographically (disability, gender, age, national origin, non-Christian,
race, and domestic partners) Exhibit 1-4
Embracing diversity
Changing U.S. demographics
Management philosophy changes
Recognizing and responding to differences

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Developing an OB Model
A model is an abstraction of reality: a simplified
representation of some real-world
phenomenon.
Our OB model has three levels of analysis:
Each level is constructed on the prior level
Individual
Group
Organizational Systems (Exhibit 1-5)

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Types of Study Variables
Independent (X) Dependent (Y)
The presumed cause of the This is the response to X (the
change in the dependent independent variable).
variable (Y). It is what the OB researchers
This is the variable that OB want to predict or explain.
researchers manipulate to The interesting variable!
observe the changes in Y.

X Y Predictive Ability

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Interesting OB Dependent Variables
Productivity
Transforming inputs to outputs at lowest cost. Includes the
concepts of effectiveness (achievement of goals) and efficiency
(meeting goals at a low cost).
Absenteeism
Failure to report to work a huge cost to employers.
Turnover
Voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an
organization.
Deviant Workplace Behavior
Voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and
thereby threatens the well-being of the organization and/or any of
its members.

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More Interesting OB Dependent
Variables
Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)
Discretionary behavior that is not part of an
employees formal job requirements, but that
nevertheless promotes the effective functioning of
the organization.
Job Satisfaction
A general attitude (not a behavior) toward ones job;
a positive feeling about one's job resulting from an
evaluation of its characteristics.

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The Independent Variables
The independent variable (X) can be at any of these three
levels in this model:
Individual
Biographical characteristics, personality and emotions, values
and attitudes, ability, perception, motivation, individual
learning and individual decision making.
Group
Communication, group decision making, leadership and trust,
group structure, conflict, power and politics, and work teams.
Organization System
Organizational culture, human resource policies and practices,
and organizational structure and design.

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OB Model
See Exhibit 1-6 in the text.
This section
contains the
Dependent
Variables (Y)

This three-part section contains the

Independent Variables (X) in ascending
levels: individual, group, and organizational
system.

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Summary and Managerial Implications
Managers need to develop their interpersonal skills to be
effective.
OB focuses on how to improve factors that make
organizations more effective.
The best predictions of behavior are made from a
combination of systematic study and intuition.
Situational variables moderate cause-and-effect
relationships which is why OB theories are contingent.
There are many OB challenges and opportunities for
managers today.
The textbook is based on the contingent OB model.

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Robbins & Judge
Organizational Behavior
Chapter 2: Diversity in Organizations

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Chapter Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
Contrast the two types of ability.
Define intellectual ability and demonstrate its relevance
to OB.
Identify the key biographical characteristics and describe
how they are relevant to OB.
Define learning and outline the principles of the three
major theories of learning.
Define shaping and show how it can be used in OB.
Show how culture affects our understanding of
intellectual abilities, biographical characteristics, and
learning.

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Ability
An individuals capacity to perform the various tasks in a
job.

Made up of two sets of factors:

Intellectual Abilities
The abilities needed to perform mental activities.
General Mental Ability (GMA) is a measure of overall intelligence.
Wonderlic Personnel Test: a quick measure of intelligence for
recruitment screening.
No correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction.
Physical Abilities
The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and
similar characteristics.

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Dimensions of Intellectual Ability
Number Aptitude
Verbal Comprehension
Perceptual Speed
Inductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
Spatial Visualization
Memory

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Nine Basic Physical Abilities
Strength Factors
Dynamic strength
Trunk strength
Static strength
Explosive strength
Flexibility Factors
Extent flexibility
Dynamic flexibility
Other Factors
Body coordination
Balance
Stamina

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Biographical Characteristics
Objective and easily obtained personal characteristics.

Age
Older workers bring experience, judgment, a strong work
ethic, and commitment to quality.
Gender
Few differences between men and women that affect job
performance.
Race (the biological heritage used to identify oneself)
Contentious issue: differences exist, but could be more
culture-based than race-based.

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Other Biographical Characteristics
Tenure
People with job tenure (seniority at a job) are more
productive, absent less frequently, have lower
turnover, and are more satisfied.
Religion

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Learning
Any relatively permanent change in
behavior that occurs as a result of
experience

Learning components:
Involves Change
Is Relatively Permanent
Is Acquired Through Experience

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Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual responds
to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce
such a response.
Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.
Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation and direct
experience.

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Classical Conditioning
Plant Cleaning example
Key Concepts:
Unconditioned stimulus
A naturally occurring phenomenon.
Unconditioned response
The naturally occurring response to a natural stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus
An artificial stimulus introduced into the situation.
Conditioned response
The response to the artificial stimulus.

This is a passive form of learning. It is reflexive and not

voluntary not the best theory for OB learning.
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Operant Conditioning
B. F. Skinners concept of Behaviorism: behavior follows
stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.

Key Concepts:
Conditioned behavior: voluntary behavior that is learned, not
reflexive.
Reinforcement: the consequences of behavior which can
increase or decrease the likelihood of behavior repetition.
Pleasing consequences increase likelihood of repetition.
Rewards are most effective immediately after performance.
Unrewarded/punished behavior is unlikely to be repeated.

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Social-Learning Theory
Based on the idea that people can also learn indirectly: by
observation, reading, or just hearing about someone elses a
models experiences.

Key Concepts:
Attentional processes
Must recognize and pay attention to critical features to learn.
Retention processes
Models actions must be remembered to be learned.
Motor reproduction processes
Watching the models behavior must be converted to doing.
Reinforcement processes
Positive incentives motivate learners.

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Shaping: A Managerial Tool
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an
individual closer to the desired response.
Four Methods of Shaping Behavior:
Positive reinforcement
Providing a reward for a desired behavior (learning)
Negative reinforcement
Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs
(learning)
Punishment
Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior
(unlearning)
Extinction
Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation
(unlearning)

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Schedules of Reinforcement
Two Major Types:
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is
demonstrated
Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make
the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is
demonstrated
Multiple frequencies.

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Types of Intermittent Reinforcement
Ratio
Depends on the number of responses made.
Interval
Depends on the time between reinforcements.
Fixed
Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals or after a set
number of responses.
Variable
Rewards that are unpredictable or that vary relative to the
behavior.

See Exhibit 2-3 for Schedules of Reinforcement

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Behavior Modification (OB Mod)
The application of reinforcement concepts to
individuals in the work setting.

Follows the Five-Step Problem-Solving Model:

Identify critical behaviors
Develop baseline data
Identify behavioral consequences
Develop and apply intervention
Evaluate performance improvement

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Problems with OB Mod
OB Mod ignores thoughts and feelings.
OB Mod may not explain complex behaviors that
involve thinking and feeling.
Stimuli may not be consciously given as a means
of shaping behavior.

Modern managers and OB theorists are using

cognitive approaches to shaping behavior.

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Global Implications
Intellectual Abilities
Structures and measures of intelligence generalize
across cultures.
Biographical Characteristics
Not much evidence on the global relevance of the
relationships described in this chapter.
Countries do vary dramatically in their biographical
composition.
Learning
Again, not much evidence currently exists we cannot
generalize at this point.

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Summary and Managerial Implications
Three Individual Variables:
Ability
Directly influences employees level of performance
Managers need to focus on ability in selection, promotion, and
transfer.
Fine-tune job to fit incumbents abilities.
Biographical Characteristics
Should not be used in management decisions: possible source
of bias.
Learning
Observable change in behavior = learning.
Reinforcement works better than punishment.

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Robbins & Judge
Organizational Behavior
Chapter 3: Values, Attitudes and Job Satisfaction

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Values
Values
Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or
end-state of existence is personally or socially
preferable to an opposite or converse mode of
conduct or end-state of existence.

Value System
A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individuals
values in terms of their intensity.

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Importance of Values
Provide understanding of the attitudes,
motivation, and behaviors of individuals
and cultures.
Influence our perception of the world
around us.
Represent interpretations of right and
wrong.
Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are
preferred over others.
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Types of Values - Rokeach Value
Survey
Terminal Values
Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a
person would like to achieve during his or her
lifetime.

Instrumental Values
Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving
ones terminal values.

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Hofstedes Framework for Assessing
Cultures
Power Distance
The extent to which a society accepts that power in
institutions and organizations is distributed
unequally.
low distance: relatively equal distribution
high distance: extremely unequal distribution

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Hofstedes Framework (contd)
Individualism Collectivism
The degree to which A tight social framework in
people prefer to act as which people expect
individuals rather than others in groups of which
a member of groups. they are a part to look
after them and protect
them.

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Hofstedes Framework (contd)
Achievement
The extent to which societal values are characterized
by assertiveness, materialism and competition.

Nurturing
The extent to which societal values emphasize
relationships and concern for others.

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Hofstedes Framework (contd)
Uncertainty Avoidance
The extent to which a society feels threatened by
uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to
avoid them.

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Hofstedes Framework (contd)
Long-term Orientation
A national culture attribute that emphasizes the
future, thrift, and persistence.

Short-term Orientation
A national culture attribute that emphasizes the
past and present, respect for tradition, and fulfilling
social obligations.

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Attitudes

Attitudes Cognitive component

The opinion or belief segment
Evaluative of an attitude.
statements or
judgments Affective Component
concerning The emotional or feeling segment
objects, of an attitude.
people, or
events. Behavioral Component
An intention to behave in a certain
way toward someone or something.

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Types of Attitudes
Job Satisfaction
A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that
an individual holds toward his or her job.

Job Involvement
Identifying with the job, actively participating in it,
and considering performance important to self-worth.

Organizational Commitment
Identifying with a particular organization and its
goals, and wishing to maintain membership in the
organization.
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The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive Dissonance
Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes
or between behavior and attitudes.

Desire to reduce dissonance

Importance of elements creating dissonance
Degree of individual influence over elements
Rewards involved in dissonance

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Measuring the A-B Relationship
Recent research indicates that attitudes (A)
significantly predict behaviors (B) when
moderating variables are taken into account.

Moderating Variables
Importance of the attitude
Specificity of the attitude
Accessibility of the attitude
Social pressures on the individual
Direct experience with the attitude

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Self-Perception Theory
Attitudes are used after the fact to make sense out of an
action that has already occurred.

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An Application: Attitude Surveys
Attitude Surveys
Eliciting responses from employees through
questionnaires about how they feel about their jobs,
work groups, supervisors, and the organization.

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Attitudes and Workforce Diversity
Training activities that can reshape employee
attitudes concerning diversity:
Participating in diversity training that provides for
self-evaluation and group discussions.
Volunteer work in community and social serve
centers with individuals of diverse backgrounds.
Exploring print and visual media that recount and
portray diversity issues.

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Job Satisfaction
Measuring Job Satisfaction
Single global rating
Summation score
How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs?
Job satisfaction declined to 50.4% in 2002
Decline attributed to:
Pressures to increase productivity and meet tighter
deadlines
Less control over work

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The Effect of Job Satisfaction on
Employee Performance
Satisfaction and Productivity
Satisfied workers arent necessarily more
productive.
Worker productivity is higher in organizations with
more satisfied workers.
Satisfaction and Absenteeism
Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable
absences.
Satisfaction and Turnover
Satisfied employees are less likely to quit.
Organizations take actions to retain high
performers and to weed out lower performers.
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How Employees Can Express
Dissatisfaction
Exit Voice
Behavior directed toward Active and constructive
leaving the organization. attempts to improve
conditions.

Loyalty Neglect
Passively waiting for Allowing conditions to
conditions to improve. worsen.

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Job Satisfaction and OCB
Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship
Behavior (OCB)
Satisfied employees who feel fairly treated by and
are trusting of the organization are more willing to
engage in behaviors that go beyond the normal
expectations of their job.

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Job Satisfaction and Customer
Satisfaction
Satisfied employees increase customer
satisfaction because:
They are more friendly, upbeat, and responsive.
They are less likely to turnover which helps build
long-term customer relationships.
They are experienced.
Dissatisfied customers increase employee job
dissatisfaction.

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Robbins & Judge
Organizational Behavior

Chapter 4: Personality and Values

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Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Define personality, describe how it is measured, and explain the
factors that determine an individuals personality.
Describe the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator personality framework
and assess its strengths and weaknesses.
Identify the key traits in the Big Five personality model.
Demonstrate how the Big Five traits predict behavior at work.
Identify other personality traits relevant to OB.
Define values, demonstrate their importance, and contrast
terminal and instrumental values.
Compare generational differences in values, and identify the
dominant values in todays workforce.
Identify Hofstedes five value dimensions of national culture.

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What is Personality?
The dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his unique
adjustments to his environment. - Gordon Allport
The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and
interacts with others, the measurable traits a person
exhibits
Measuring Personality
Helpful in hiring decisions
Most common method: self-reporting surveys
Observer-ratings surveys provide an independent
assessment of personality often better predictors

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Personality Determinants
Heredity
Factors determined at conception: physical stature,
facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, muscle
composition and reflexes, energy level, and bio-
rhythms
This Heredity Approach argues that genes are the
source of personality
Twin studies: raised apart but very similar
personalities
Parents dont add much to personality development
There is some personality change over long time
periods

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Personality Traits
Enduring characteristics that describe an
individuals behavior
The more consistent the characteristic and the
more frequently it occurs in diverse situations, the
more important the trait.
Two dominant frameworks used to describe
personality:
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Big Five Model
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The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Most widely-used instrument in the world.
Participants are classified on four axes to
determine one of 16 possible personality
types, such as ENTJ.
Extroverted (E) vs. Introverted (I)
Sensing (S) vs. Intuitive (N)
Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F)
Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P)

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The Types and Their Uses
Each of the sixteen possible combinations has a name,
for instance:
Visionaries (INTJ) are original, stubborn and driven.
Organizers (ESTJ) realistic, logical, analytical and
businesslike.
Conceptualizer (ENTP) entrepreneurial, innovative,
individualistic and resourceful.

Research results on validity mixed.

MBTI is a good tool for self-awareness and counseling.
Should not be used as a selection test for job candidates.

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The Big Five Model of Personality
Dimensions
Extroversion
Sociable, gregarious, and assertive
Agreeableness
Good-natured, cooperative, and trusting
Conscientiousness
Responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized
Emotional Stability
Calm, self-confident, secure under stress (positive), versus
nervous, depressed, and insecure under stress (negative)
Openness to Experience
Curious, imaginative, artistic, and sensitive

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How Do the Big Five Traits Predict
Behavior?
Research has shown this to be a better framework.
Certain traits have been shown to strongly relate to
higher job performance:
Highly conscientious people develop more job knowledge,
exert greater effort, and have better performance.
Other Big Five Traits also have implications for work.
Emotional stability is related to job satisfaction.
Extroverts tend to be happier in their jobs and have good social
skills.
Open people are more creative and can be good leaders.
Agreeable people are good in social settings.
See Exhibit 4-2

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Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB
Core Self-Evaluation
The degree to which people like or dislike themselves
Positive self-evaluation leads to higher job performance
Machiavellianism
A pragmatic, emotionally distant power-player who believes that ends
justify the means
High Machs are manipulative, win more often, and persuade more
than they are persuaded. Flourish when:
Have direct interaction
Work with minimal rules and regulations
Emotions distract others
Narcissism
An arrogant, entitled, self-important person who needs excessive
admiration
Less effective in their jobs

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More Relevant Personality Traits
Self-Monitoring
The ability to adjust behavior to meet external,
situational factors.
High monitors conform more and are more likely to
become leaders.
Risk Taking
The willingness to take chances.
May be best to align propensities with job
requirements.
Risk takers make faster decisions with less
information.

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Even More Relevant Personality Traits
Type A Personality
Aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve
more in less time
Impatient: always moving, walking, and eating rapidly
Strive to think or do two or more things at once
Cannot cope with leisure time
Obsessed with achievement numbers
Prized in North America, but quality of the work is low
Type B people are the complete opposite

Proactive Personality
Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and
perseveres to completion
Creates positive change in the environment

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Values
Basic convictions on how to conduct yourself or how to
live your life that is personally or socially preferable
How to live life properly.

Attributes of Values:
Content Attribute that the mode of conduct or end-state
is important
Intensity Attribute just how important that content is.
Value System
A persons values rank-ordered by intensity
Tends to be relatively constant and consistent

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Importance of Values
Provide understanding of the attitudes,
motivation, and behaviors
Influence our perception of the world around
us
Represent interpretations of right and
wrong
Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are
preferred over others
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Classifying Values Rokeach Value
Survey
Terminal Values
Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person
would like to achieve during his or her lifetime
Instrumental Values
Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving ones
terminal values
People in same occupations or categories tend to hold
similar values.
But values vary between groups.
Value differences make it difficult for groups to negotiate
and may create conflict.
See Exhibits 4-3 and 4-4

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Classifying Values Rokeach Value Survey

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Generational Values
Entered Approximate
Cohort Dominant Work Values
Workforce Current Age
Veterans 1950-1964 65+ Hard working, conservative,
conforming; loyalty to the
organization
Boomers 1965-1985 40-60s Success, achievement, ambition,
dislike of authority; loyalty to career
Xers 1985-2000 20-40s Work/life balance, team-oriented,
dislike of rules; loyalty to relationships

Nexters 2000-Present Under 30 Confident, financial success, self-

reliant but team-oriented; loyalty to
both self and relationships

See Exhibit 4-5

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Linking Personality and Values to the
Workplace
Managers are less interested in someones ability
to do a specific job than in that persons flexibility.
Person-Job Fit:
John Hollands Personality-Job Fit Theory
Six personality types
Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI)
Key Points of the Model:
There appear to be intrinsic differences in personality
between people.
There are different types of jobs.
People in jobs congruent with their personality should be
more satisfied and have lower turnover.
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Hollands Personality Types
Six types:
Realistic
Investigative
Artistic
Social
Enterprising
Conventional
Need to match personality type with occupation
See Exhibits 4-7 and 4-8

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Still Linking Personality to the
Workplace
In addition to matching the individuals personality to
the job, managers are also concerned with:
Person-Organization Fit:
The employees personality must fit with the
organizational culture.
People are attracted to organizations that match their
values.
Those who match are most likely to be selected.
Mismatches will result in turnover.
Can use the Big Five personality types to match to the
organizational culture.
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Global Implications
Personality
Do frameworks like Big Five transfer across cultures?
Yes, the but the frequency of type in the culture may vary.
Better in individualistic than collectivist cultures.
Values
Values differ across cultures.
Hofstedes Framework for assessing culture five value
dimensions:
Power distance
Individualism vs. Collectivism
Masculinity vs. Femininity
Uncertainty Avoidance
Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation

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reserved.
Hofstedes Framework: Power Distance
The extent to which a society accepts that
power in institutions and organizations is
distributed unequally.
Low distance
Relatively equal power between those with status/wealth and
those without status/wealth
High distance
Extremely unequal power distribution between those with
status/wealth and those without status/wealth

See Exhibit 4-6

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reserved.
Hofstedes Framework: Individualism
Individualism
The degree to which people prefer to act as
individuals rather than as members of groups
Collectivism
A tight social framework in which people expect
others in groups of which they are a part to look
after them and protect them

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reserved.
Hofstedes Framework: Masculinity
Masculinity
The extent to which the society values work roles
of achievement, power, and control, and where
assertiveness and materialism are also valued
Femininity
The extent to which there is little differentiation
between roles for men and women

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reserved.
Hofstedes Framework: Uncertainty
Avoidance
The extent to which a society feels threatened
by uncertain and ambiguous situations and
tries to avoid them
High Uncertainty Avoidance:
Society does not like ambiguous situations and tries to
avoid them.
Low Uncertainty Avoidance:
Society does not mind ambiguous situations and
embraces them.

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reserved.
Hofstedes Framework: Time
Orientation
Long-term Orientation
A national culture attribute that emphasizes the
future, thrift, and persistence
Short-term Orientation
A national culture attribute that emphasizes the
present and the here-and-now

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reserved.
Hofstedes Framework: An Assessment
There are regional differences within countries
The original data is old and based on only one
company
Hofstede had to make many judgment calls
while doing the research
Some results dont match what is believed to
be true about given countries
Despite these problems it remains a very
popular framework
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reserved.
GLOBE Framework for Assessing
Cultures
Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior
Effectiveness (GLOBE) research program.
dimensions of national culture

Similar to Hofstedes framework with these

additional dimensions:
Humane Orientation: how much society rewards
people for being Compassionate, generous, and kind.
Performance Orientation: how much society
encourages and rewards performance improvement
and excellence.

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reserved.
Robbins & Judge
Organizational Behavior
Chapter 5: Emotions and Moods

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Chapter Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
Differentiate emotions from moods, and list the basic emotions
and moods.
Discuss whether emotions are rational and what functions they
serve.
Identify the sources of emotions and moods.
Show the impact emotional labor has on employees.
Describe Affective Events Theory and identify its applications.
Contrast the evidence for and against the existence of emotional
intelligence.
Apply concepts about emotions and moods to specific OB issues.
Contrast the experience, interpretation, and expression of
emotions across cultures.

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Why Were Emotions Ignored in OB?
The Myth of Rationality
Emotions were seen as irrational
Managers worked to make emotion-free
environments
View of Emotionality
Emotions were believed to be disruptive
Emotions interfered with productivity
Only negative emotions were observed

Now we know emotions cant be separated from

the workplace
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What are Emotions and Moods?
Affect
A broad range of emotions that people experience
Made up of:
Emotions
Intense feelings that are directed at someone
or something
Moods
Feelings that tend to be less intense than
emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus
Exhibit 8-1

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The Basic Emotions
While not universally accepted, there appear to be six
basic emotions:
1. Anger
2. Fear
3. Sadness
4. Happiness
5. Disgust
6. Surprise
All other emotions are subsumed under these six
May even be placed in a spectrum of emotion
Happiness surprise fear sadness anger - disgust

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Basic Moods: Positive and Negative
Affect
Emotions cannot be neutral.
Emotions are grouped into general mood
states.
Mood states affect perception and therefore
perceived reality.

Exhibit 8-2

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What is the Function of Emotion?
Do Emotions Make Us Irrational?
Expressing emotions publicly may be damaging to
social status
Emotions are critical to rational decision-making
Emotions help us understand the world around us

What Functions Do Emotions Serve?

Darwin argued they help in survival & problem-solving
Evolutionary psychology: people must experience
emotions as there is a purpose behind them
Not all researchers agree with this assessment

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Sources of Emotion and Mood
Personality
There is a trait component affect intensity
Day and Time of the Week
There is a common pattern for all of us:
Happier in the midpoint of the daily awake period
Happier toward the end of the week Exhibits 8-3 & 8-4
Weather
Illusory correlation no effect
Stress
Even low levels of constant stress can worsen moods
Social Activities
Physical, informal, and dining activities increase
positive moods

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More Sources of Emotion and Mood
Sleep
Poor sleep quality increases negative affect
Exercise
Does somewhat improve mood, especially for depressed
people
Age
Older folks experience fewer negative emotions
Gender
Women tend to be more emotionally expressive, feel
emotions more intensely, have longer lasting moods, and
express emotions more frequently than do men
Due more to socialization than to biology

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Emotional Labor
An employees expression of organizationally desired
emotions during interpersonal transactions at work
Emotional Dissonance:
Employees have to project one emotion while
simultaneously feeling another
Can be very damaging and lead to burnout
Types of Emotions:
Felt: the individuals actual emotions
Displayed: required or appropriate emotions
Surface Acting: displaying appropriately but not feeling those
emotions internally
Deep Acting: changing internal feelings to match display rules - very
stressful

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Affective Events Theory (AET)
An event in the work environment triggers positive or negative emotional
reactions
Personality and mood determine response intensity
Emotions can influence a broad range of work variables
Implications:

1. An emotional episode is actually the result of a series of emotional experiences

triggered by a single event
2. Current and past emotions affect job satisfaction
3. Emotional fluctuations over time create variations in job performance
4. Emotion-driven behaviors are typically brief and variable
5. Both negative and positive emotions can distract workers and reduce job
performance

Emotions provide valuable insights about behavior

Emotions, and the minor events that cause them, should not be ignored at
work: they accumulate

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Emotional Intelligence (EI)
A persons ability to:
Be self-aware
Recognizing own emotions when experienced
Detect emotions in others
Manage emotional cues and information
EI plays an important role in job performance
EI is controversial and not wholly accepted
Case for EI:
Intuitive appeal; predicts criteria that matter; is biologically-
based
Case against EI:
Too vague a concept; cant be measured; its validity is
suspect

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OB Applications of Emotions and
Moods
Selection
EI should be a hiring factor, especially for social jobs.
Decision Making
Positive emotions can lead to better decisions.
Creativity
Positive mood increases flexibility, openness, and
creativity.
Motivation
Positive mood affects expectations of success; feedback
amplifies this effect.
Leadership
Emotions are important to acceptance of messages from
organizational leaders.

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More OB Applications of Emotions and Moods

Negotiation
Emotions , skillfully displayed, can affect negotiations.
Customer Services
Emotions affect service quality delivered to customers which, in turn, affects
customer relationships.
Emotional Contagion: catching emotions from others.
Job Attitudes
Can carry over to home but dissipate overnight.
Deviant Workplace Behaviors
Negative emotions lead to employee deviance (actions that violate norms and
threaten the organization).
Managers Influence
Leaders who are in a good mood, use humor, and praise employees increase positive
moods in the workplace.

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Global Implications
Do people experience emotions equally?
No. Culture can determine type, frequency, and depth of
experienced emotions
Do people interpret emotions the same way?
Yes. Negative emotions are seen as undesirable and
positive emotions are desirable
However, value of each emotion varies across cultures
Do norms of emotional expression vary?
Yes. Some cultures have a bias against emotional
expression; others demand some display of emotion
How the emotions are expressed may make interpretation
outside of ones culture difficult

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Robbins & Judge
Organizational Behavior
Chapter 6: Motivation Concepts

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Chapter Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Describe the three elements of motivation.
Identify four early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability
today.
Apply the predictions of Cognitive Evaluation theory to intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards.
Compare and contrast goal-setting theory and Management by
Objectives.
Contrast reinforcement theory and goal-setting theory.
Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity theory.
Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees.
Compare contemporary theories of motivation.
Explain to what degree motivation theories are culture-bound.

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Defining Motivation
The result of the interaction between the
individual and the situation.
The processes that account for an individuals
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort
toward attaining a goal specifically, an
organizational goal.

Three key elements:

Intensity how hard a person tries.
Direction effort that is channeled toward, and consistent with,
organizational goals.
Persistence how long a person can maintain effort.

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Early Theories of Motivation
These early theories may not be valid, but they do
form the basis for contemporary theories and are
still used by practicing managers.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Alderfers ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth)
McGregors Theory X and Theory Y
Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory
McClellands Theory of Needs

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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
There is a hierarchy of five needs; as each need is substantially
satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
Levels:
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Social Higher order
Safety Lower Order
Physiological
Assumptions
Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until
all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.
Must move in hierarchical order.
Exhibit 6-1

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Alderfers ERG Theory
A reworking of Maslow to fit empirical research

Three groups of core needs:

Existence (Maslow: physiological and safety)
Relatedness (Maslow: social and status)
Growth (Maslow: esteem and self-actualization)

Removed the hierarchical assumption

Can be motivated by all three at once

Popular, but not accurate, theory

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McGregors Theory X and Theory Y
Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X
(basically negative) and Theory Y (positive).
Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view
The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees
Theory X
Workers have little ambition
Dislike work
Avoid responsibility
Theory Y
Workers are self-directed
Enjoy work
Accept responsibility

No empirical evidence to support this theory

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Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory
Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites
but separate constructs

Hygiene Factors - Extrinsic and Related to Dissatisfaction

Work Conditions
Salary
Company Policies
Motivators - Intrinsic and Related to Satisfaction
Achievement
Responsibility
Growth
Exhibits 6-2 & 6-3

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Criticisms of Two-Factor Theory
Herzberg says that hygiene factors must be met
to remove dissatisfaction. If motivators are given,
then satisfaction can occur.

Herzberg is limited by his procedure

Participants had self-serving bias
Reliability of raters questioned
Bias or errors of observation
No overall measure of satisfaction was used
Herzberg assumed, but didnt research, a strong
relationship between satisfaction and
productivity

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McClellands Three Needs Theory
Need for Achievement (nAch)
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to
strive to succeed
Need for Power (nPow)
The need to make others behave in a way that they would not
have behaved otherwise
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
People have varying levels of each of the three
needs
Hard to measure

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Performance Predictions for High nAch
People with a high need for achievement are
likely to:
Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of
success avoiding very low or high risk situations
Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal
responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk
Dont necessarily make good managers too personal a
focus
Most good general managers do NOT have a high nAch
Need high level of nPow and low nAff for managerial
success
Good research support but it is not a very
practical theory

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Goal-Setting Theory
Management By Objectives (MBO)
Self-Efficacy Theory
Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social
Learning Theory
Reinforcement Theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory

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Cognitive Evaluation Theory
In contrast to extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation tends to enhance
persistence, wellbeing, and creativity
Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only
intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation.
Major Implications for Work Rewards
Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent
Extrinsic rewards decrease intrinsic rewards
Pay should be non contingent on performance
Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation, tangible rewards reduce it
Self-concordance
in which people feel that they pursue their goals because the goals fit with
their underlying interests and values rather than because others say they
should pursue them

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Lockes Goal-Setting Theory
Basic Premise:
That specific and difficult goals, with self-
generated feedback, lead to higher performance.
Difficult Goals:
Focus and direct attention
Energize the person to work harder
Difficulty increases persistence
Force people to be more effective and efficient

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Implementation: Management By
Objectives
MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting.
Goals must be:
Tangible
Verifiable
Measurable
Corporate goals are broken down into smaller, more
specific goals at each level of organization.
Four common ingredients to MBO programs:
Goal Specificity
Participative decision making
Explicit time period
Performance feedback

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Banduras Self-Efficacy Theory
An individuals belief that he or she is capable
of performing a task
Higher efficacy is related to:
Greater confidence
Greater persistence in the face of difficulties
Better response to negative feedback (work harder)
Self-Efficacy complements Goal-Setting Theory

Exhibit 6-5

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Increasing Self-Efficacy
Enactive mastery
Most important source of efficacy
Gaining relevant experience with task or job
Practice makes Perfect
Vicarious modeling
Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task
experienced in the imagination through the feelings or actions of
another person
Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him- or
herself
Verbal persuasion
Motivation through verbal conviction
Pygmalion & Galatea effects (higher expectations lead to an increase
in performance.
Arousal
Getting psyched up emotionally aroused to complete task
Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task

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Reinforcement Theory
Similar to Goal-Setting Theory, but focused on a
behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one

Behavior is environmentally caused

Thought is not important
Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored
Behavior is controlled by its consequences reinforcer
Not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of
behavior
Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but not
likely to be the sole cause

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Adams Equity Theory
Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-
inputs of relevant others
When ratios are equal: state of equity exists no
tension as the situation is considered fair
When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to
unfairness
Underrewarded states cause anger
Overrewarded states cause guilt
Tension motivates people to act to bring their
situation into equity
Exhibit 6-7

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Equity Theorys Relevant Others
Can be four different situations:

Self-Inside
The persons experience in a different job in the same
organization
Self-Outside
The persons experience in a different job in a different
organization
Other-Inside
Another individual or group within the organization
Other-Outside
Another individual or group outside of the organization

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Reactions to Inequity
Employee Behaviors to Create Equity
Change inputs (slack off)
Change outcomes (increase output)
Distort/change perceptions of self
Distort/change perceptions of others
Choose a different referent person
Leave the field (quit the job)
Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
Paid by time:
Overrewarded employees produce more
Underrewarded employees produce less with low quality
Paid by quality:
Overrewarded employees give higher quality
Underrewarded employees make more of low quality

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Justice and Equity Theory
Organizational Justice
Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace
Made up of:
Distributive Justice
Fairness of outcome
Procedural Justice
Fairness of outcome process
Interactional Justice
Being treated with dignity and respect
Exhibit 6-8

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