15/10/2014

Energy Efficiency in Building

Active Design Part II
Presented by: CK Tang
BSEEP Component 4 Manager
Veritas Enviornment Sdn Bhd
[email protected]

Air Conditioning System

System Sizing

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Current Industry Practice

• Use rule of thumb to size Air-Conditioning?
– 200 ~ 220 Watt/m2, 80 ~ 90 Btu/ft2
• Use manual spreadsheet?
– Compute solar gain, etc?
• Use a Computer Software
– Trane software
– Carrier E-20
– Etc.

Chiller Load Heat

Rejection
CHW
PUMP
Load
EVAPORATOR

CCW
PUMP
O/A INTAKE Cooling Coil COMPRESSOR
DAMPER
Load
COOLING
CONDENSER COOLING TOWER
COIL

FAN
RECYCLE
AIR
DAMPER

FILTER

SPILL AIR Space Load

DAMPER

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Space Cooling Chiller Heat

LOAD Cooling Coil Load Load Rejection
Load Load

1. Internal 3. Fan Power 6. Chilled Water 8. Chiller Power

Gain Pump Power
4. Fresh Air 9. Condenser
HEAT 2. External
Intake 7. Pipe Water Pump
Gain
Conduction Power
5. Duct
Heat Gain
Conduction
Heat Gain

Space Cooling Load

Internal Heat Gain

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People Heat Gain

Degree of Activity Sensible Heat Latent Heat

(W/person) (W/person)
Seated at theater, night 70 35
Seated, very light work 70 45
Moderately active office work 75 55
Standing, light work; walking (Department
75 55
store; retail store)
Bowling 170 255

Taken from Ashrae Fundamentals @ 24°C

Lighting Heat Gain

Type/space Max. lighting power
Type of Usage density
Actual Installed Lighting
W/m2
Power Density to be used!
Offices 15
9.8 W/m2
8.2 W/m2
Supermarkets/ Department
5.0 W/m2
Stores/ Shops 25

Stores/ Warehouses/ Stairs/

Corridors/ Lavatories 10

MS 1525 (2007)

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Equipment Heat Gain

Load Density of Load Factor Descriptions
Office W/m²
Assumes 15.5 m²/workstation (6.5 workstations per 100m²) with
Light 5.4 computer and monitor at each plus printer and fax. Computer monitor
and fax diversity 0.67, printer diversity 0.33.

Assumes 11.6 m²/workstation (8.5 workstations per 100m²) ²) with

Medium 10.8 computer and monitor at each plus printer and fax. Computer monitor
and fax diversity 0.75, printer diversity 0.50.

Assumes 9.3 m²/workstation (11 workstations per 100m²) with

Medium/Heav computer and monitor at each plus printer and fax. Computer monitor
16.1
y and fax diversity 0.75, printer diversity 0.50.

Assumes 7.8 m²/workstation (13 workstations per 100m²) with

Heavy 21.5 computer and monitor at each plus printer and fax. Computer monitor
and fax diversity 1, printer diversity 0.50.

Ashrae Fundamentals

Space Cooling Load

External Heat Gain

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Space Cooling Chiller Heat

LOAD Coil Load Load Rejection
Cooling
Load
Load

1. Internal 3. Fan Power 6. Chilled Water 8. Chiller Power

Gain (blow through) Pump Power
9. Condenser
HEAT 2. External
4. Fresh Air 7. Pipe Water Pump
Gain
Intake Conduction Power
Heat Gain
5. Duct
Conduction
Heat Gain

Computer Compute
• Solar Gain
• Conduction Gain
• Design Weather Data
Descriptions Ashrae design MS 1525 Test Reference Test Reference
weather Recomme Year @ peak dry Year @ peak
database v4.0 nded bulb temperature enthalpy
for KL
Dry Bulb Temperature (°C) 35.1 33.3 35.6 30.9
Wet Bulb Temperature
26.3 27.2 25.9 28.4
(°C)

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Building Envelope Properties

• Used actual building properties!
• Ask for the Solar Heat Gain Coefficient of Glazing
• Ask for the U-value of wall and roof.
• Input the Thermal Capacity of material to model
thermal mass

• Have faith in Science and in the 1st Law of

Thermodynamic.

Infiltration heat gain

• A measured result of 10 government office
buildings in 2010 by JKR indicates
– Average total fresh air in building is ~ 1 ach.
– Measured highest fresh air in building is ~ 2 ach.

• Based on occupant density of 10 m2/person and 4

m of height of office spaces.
– ~ 0.5 ach.

• This indicates that on average buildings have an

additional infiltration of 0.5 ach.

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Exfiltration ~ 0.5 ach

Cooling Coil Load

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Space Cooling Chiller Heat

LOAD Cooling Load Rejection
Coil
Load Load Load

1. Internal 3. Fan Power 6. Chilled Water 8. Chiller Power

Gain Pump Power
4. Fresh Air 9. Condenser
HEAT 2. External
Intake 7. Pipe Water Pump
Gain
Conduction Power
5. Duct
Heat Gain
Conduction
Heat Gain

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Fan Power Heat Gain

𝑸 ∆𝑷𝒕
𝑾𝒇 =
𝝁𝒇

• Where
• 𝑊𝑓 = 𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡)
• 𝑄 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑚3 /𝑠)
• ∆𝑃𝑡 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, (𝑃𝑎)
• 𝜇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (%)

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Total Fan Pressure

𝛥𝑃𝑡 = 𝑆𝑃𝑑 + 𝑃𝐷𝑎𝑓 + 𝑃𝐷𝑐 + 𝐷𝑝

Where,
• 𝛥𝑃𝑡 = 𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑃𝑎)
• 𝑆𝑃𝑑 = 𝐷𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑃𝑎)
• 𝑃𝐷𝑎𝑓 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑃𝑎)
• 𝑃𝐷𝑐 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙 (𝑃𝑎)
1
• 𝐷𝑝 = 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 2 𝜌𝑉 2
• 𝜌 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (1.2 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
• 𝑉 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 (𝑚/𝑠)

Total Fan Efficiency

𝑭𝑬𝒕 = 𝑭𝒆 𝒙 𝑴𝒆 𝒙𝑩𝒆
• Where,
• 𝐹𝐸𝑡 = 𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (%)
• 𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (%)
• 𝑀𝑒 = 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (%)
• 𝐵𝑒 = 𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝐵𝑒𝑙𝑡 & 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (%)
• Where,
• 𝐵𝑒 =
100%, 𝑖𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟

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CONDUCTION HEAT GAIN FROM DUCT

Chiller Load

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Space Cooling Chiller Heat

LOAD Cooling Coil Load Load Rejection
Load Load

1. Internal 3. Fan Power 6. Chilled Water 8. Chiller Power

Gain (blow through) Pump Power
9. Condenser
HEAT 2. External
4. Fresh Air 7. Pipe Water Pump
Gain
Intake Conduction Power
Heat Gain
5. Duct
Conduction
Heat Gain

Chilled Water Pump Power

Where did the

pump energy
go to?

~90% of pump
energy ends
up in water

http://activechilledbeam.com/chilled_beam_questions.asp

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Pump Power Input parameters

1. Design ΔT (temperature differences) of
design supply and return chilled water
temperature.
2. Total Pump Efficiency
3. Total Pump Head

H = Pump Head
• A factor of the followings
– Flow Rate (~ fixed by building cooling load & Design ΔT)
– Pipe Size (~ designed by consultants)
– Number and types of bends (~ proposed by contractor)
– Valves and Fittings (~ proposed by contractor/supplier)
– Chiller Heat Exchanger (~ chiller selection)

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Chilled Water Pipe Heat Gain

To be of concern if chilled
water pipe is running
outdoor.

http://www.allredmechanical.com

Heat Rejection Load

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Space Cooling Chiller Heat

LOAD Cooling Coil Load Load Rejection
Load Load

1. Internal 3. Fan Power 6. Chilled Water 8. Chiller Power

Gain (blow through) Pump Power
9. Condenser
HEAT 2. External
4. Fresh Air 7. Pipe Water Pump
Gain
Intake Conduction Power
Heat Gain
5. Duct
Conduction
Heat Gain

Chiller Power consumption

Open Drive or Hermetic

Drive.

Open drive has an

electric motor that is air
cooled by the ambient
air.

A hermetic drive has an

electric motor that is
hermetically sealed and
cooled with refrigerant.

http://engfac.cooper.edu/melody/411

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Chiller Efficiency

𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 (𝑘𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 )

𝐶𝑂𝑃 =
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑊𝑒 )

12
𝑘𝑤 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑛 =
𝐶𝑂𝑃 𝑋 3.412

Condenser Pump Power

Also take note of direct

sunlight heating up the
condenser pipe!

http://www.alabamapower.com/business/save-money-
energy/energy-know-how/chillers/free-cooling.asp

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Pump Power Input parameters

1. Design ΔT (temperature differences) of
design supply and return chilled water
temperature.
2. Total Pump Efficiency
3. Total Pump Head

Energy Efficiency 1st Estimates

Simulation Studies Based on an

Office Building Scenario
17 Floors

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AIR SIDE Optimization

Energy Efficiency Estimates

Air Side Optimization

 6 Items to Optimize
1. AHU Flow Rate (CAV vs. VAV)
2. AHU Total Fan Efficiency
3. AHU Total Pressure Loss
4. Optimal Design Off-coil Temperature
5. Active control of Fresh Air Intake
6. Heat Recovery Wheel and Infiltration Rate

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CAV Design ΔT Optimization

Reduced flow rate

CAV System @ Part Load

Fine Tuning it based on Actual

Condition can reduce significant
amount of energy!

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VAV Design ΔT Optimization

CAV Vs. VAV @ Full Load

Descriptions BEI Units

CAV (at 11°C off-coil) 165.6 kWh/m².year
VAV (at 11°C off-coil) 158.6 kWh/m².year
BEI VAV improvement 7.1 kWh/m².year
% VAV improvement 4.3% Percentage

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CAV Vs. VAV @ Part Load

45% Reduction in Occupancy BEI Units

VAV at design flow rate 130.4 kWh/m².year
CAV at reduced flow rate 126.4 kWh/m².year
BEI CAV improvement 4.0 kWh/m².year
% CAV improvement 3.1% Percentage

Fan Pressure & Efficiency

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Fan Pressure & BEI

Options for Reduction of Fan Total Pressure

• Larger Ducts, Less Bends

• Selection of Fittings

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Air Filter Pressure drop

Camfil – Closed Pleat Pressure Drop Curve

Cooling Coil Pressure Drop

http://www.lytron.com/Tools-and-Technical-
Reference/Application-Notes/Selecting-a-Heat-
Exchanger

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Face Velocity Reduction

• 2.5 m/s down to 2.0 m/s (or lower)

Fan Efficiency & BEI

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http://www.ziehl-abegg.com/au/press-release-165.html

Demand Controlled Fresh Air

CO2 Sensor

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BEI & Actual Building Occupancy

CO2 Level Set Point

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Heat Recovery

toilets toilets

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Heat Recovery

Using toilet exhaust for fresh air intake

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WATER SIDE

Water-Side Optimization
 4 Items to Optimize
1. Chilled Water Distribution Energy Efficiency
2. Chiller Energy Efficiency
3. Condenser Water Distribution Energy Efficiency
4. Cooling Tower Energy Efficiency

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Chilled Water Distribution

Options Studied
1. System Selection
• Primary Constant Flow
• Primary Constant/Secondary Variable Flow
• Primary Variable Flow
2. High ΔT Chilled Water Distribution
3. Low Pump Head
4. High Pump Efficiency

Chilled Water Distribution System @ Specific Pump Power of 545 W per l/s
161
Base
160

159
-2.3
158 -2.8
BEI (kWh/m2.year)

-3.3
157 -3.7
156
-5.0
155

154

153

152
Primary Primary Variable Primary Primary Primary Primary
Constant Secondary Secondary Secondary Secondary
(pump power (pump power (pump power
add 10%) add 20%) add 30%)

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High ΔT Chilled Water distribution

𝐻 = 1.16 𝑄 ∆𝑇
Where,
H = heat load (kW) (building cooling load)
Q = water volume flow rate (m3/h)
ΔT = temperature difference (oC)

Rewriting,
𝐻
𝑄=
1.16 ∆𝑇

Issues to consider for high ΔT Design

option
• Pipe Sizes:
– Reduction in sizes, reduces capital cost,
while maintaining the same pump head. Or,
– Maintain pipe sizes, while reducing pump
head, increasing efficiency.
• Chilled Water Supply Temperature:
– Reduced temperature, reduces chiller
efficiency, i.e.
• 6.67°C to 5.56°C (44°F to 42°F)
• Chilled Water Return Temperature:
– Increased ΔT, increases cooling coil sizes in
AHU, increasing capital cost.

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Pump Head Constant (~Pipe Size Reduced)

Base
160
-1.2
-2.0 -1.9
158 -2.7
BEI (kWh/m2/year)

156
Base
-0.4 -0.7 -0.6
-0.9
154

152

150

DT 12F (44/56F) DT 14F (44/58F) DT 16F (44/60F) DT 18F (44/62F) DT 16F (42/58F)
Chilled Water Temperature Different

Primary Constant Primary Variable

Primary Variable System

160

158
BEI (kWh/m2.year)

156
Base Base
-0.4 -0.7 -0.6
-1.1 -0.9
154 -1.7 -1.6
-2.1

152

150

DT 12F DT 14F DT 16F DT 18F DT 16F

(44/56F) (44/58F) (44/60F) (44/62F) (42/58F)
Chilled Water Temperature Different

Pump Head Constant Pump Head Reduced

Pipe Sized Down, Pipe Size Maintained,
Maintaining Pressure Reducing Pressure

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Pump head and efficiency

Pump power Equation

𝒒𝝆𝒈𝒉
𝑷𝒉 =
𝟑. 𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒙 𝝁
𝑃ℎ = 𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑊)
𝑞 = 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚3 /ℎ)
𝜌 = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1,000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (9.81 𝑚2 /𝑠)
ℎ = 𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝜇 = 𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (%)

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Rewriting it… into

Specific pump power

Specific Pump Power

𝜌𝑔ℎ 9.81 ℎ
𝑃= =
𝜇 𝑥 1000 𝜇

𝑃 = Specific Pump Power (W per l/s)

𝜌 = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1,000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (9.81 𝑚2 /𝑠)
ℎ = 𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝜇 = 𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (%)

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Chilled Water Pump Efficiency @ ΔT 6.67°C (44/56°F)

Primary Variable System
158

157
BEI (kWh/m2.yer)

156
y = 0.0059x + 151.93
155 R² = 0.9998

154

153

152
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Specific Pump Power (W per l/s)

Reducing Specific Pump Power by 100 W per l/s, reduces BEI by

100 x 0.0059 = 0.6 kWh/m2.year

Pump Head Optimization

• A factor of the followings
– Flow Rate (~ fixed by building cooling load & Design ΔT)
– Pipe Size (~ designed by consultants)
– Number and types of bends (~ proposed by contractor)
– Valves and Fittings (~ proposed by contractor/supplier)
– Chiller Heat Exchanger (~ chiller selection)

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Priorities
1. Specific Pump Power Reduction
– Pump Head
– Pump Efficiency

2. Primary Variable Flow or Primary/Secondary Flow

3. High ΔT & Maintain pipe size.

Chiller Efficiency

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Chiller Efficiency

𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 (𝑘𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 )

𝐶𝑂𝑃 =
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑊𝑒 )

12
𝑘𝑤 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑛 =
𝐶𝑂𝑃 𝑋 3.412

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Caution on chiller study

• DOE-2 Chillers Performance Curve-Fit
– Centrifugal Chiller based on chillers manufactured
around 1975.
• Newer centrifugal chiller can be significantly more
efficient at part load.
– Screw Chiller curve-fit was updated recently.
• ~ 2006 updated
– VSD Chiller curve-fit is the latest introduction.
• ~ 2006 introduced.
• Based on a frictionless centrifugal chiller.

Condenser Pump Efficiency

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High ΔT Condenser Flow Rate

• Typical Design: 95/85°F (35/29.44°C)
– Flow Rate: 2.4 gpm/ton

• Higher Condenser Flow Rate

– Chiller efficiency is better
– But, Pump power increases

• Condition Tested:
– 93/85°F (33.9/29.4°C) – 3.0 gpm/ton
– 95/85°F (35/29.4°C) – 2.4 gpm/ton
– 97/85°F (36.1/29.44°C) – 2.0 gpm/ton

@ 2.0 gpm/ton, a reduction of 100 W per l/s, reduces BEI by:

100 x 0.0233 = 2.3 kWh/m2.year

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Cooling Tower Fan Efficiency

Reduction of 0.01 kWe/HRT = 0.01 x 146.92 = ~ 1.5 kWh/m2.year reduction

Variable Speed Fan

Cooling Tower @
Different Set Point
Water Leaving
Temperature.

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Cooling Tower summary

Bridging Design and Actual

Operation Performance

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Common Installation Issues

Install It Right!

Air Leakages
• Main Doors
• Missing Partition above false ceiling
– Porous walls
• Duct leakages
• Missing dampers in smoke ventilation ducts
• No seals between windows frame and wall

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Piping and Ducting Layout

What is wrong with this

picture?

http://sustainability.csusb.edu/Projects/centralC
oolingSystemUpgrades.html

Straight length of pipe before pump

suction inlet

Note the Flat Top Eccentric Reducer used to avoid air pocket at suction
inlet.

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Appoint Building Energy Manager

• Need to appoint someone to take charge.

Commissioning vs. TAB

• TAB = Testing, Adjusting and Balancing
• Commissioning = Professional Service for Energy
Efficiency in Building
– Owner’s Project Requirement
– Design Intent Commissioning Plan
– Basis of Design
– Commissioning Specifications
– Contract Review
– Submittal Review
– TAB before handing over
– Handing Over
– Periodic Testing Plan
– Training of Facility Manager

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Fine-Tuning
• Match building to actual occupants’
requirements while optimizing efficiency.
– Lighting schedule
– Air-Conditioning schedule
– Sensors Calibration
– Temperature Set-Point
– Air Rebalancing
– Computer & Equipment Settings
– Occupant’s Awareness Campaign

Continuous Monitoring
1. Sub-meters
2. Energy Management System

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Energy Management System

• Line Charts • Daily
• Weekly
• Bar Charts • Monthly
• Yearly

The End

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