Network Models

Rules that Govern Communications

 Communication in networks is governed by pre-defined
rules called protocols.
 A group of inter-related protocols that are necessary to
perform a communication function is called a protocol
suite. These protocols are implemented in software and
hardware that is loaded on each host and network device
 Networking protocols suites describe processes such as:
- The format or structure of the message
- The process by which networking devices share
information about pathways with other networks
- How and when error and system messages are passed
between devices
- The setup and termination of data transfer sessions
 Individual protocols in a protocol suite may be vendor-
specific and proprietary.
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Using Layer Models…
 Two types of networking models
 A reference model provides a common reference for
maintaining consistency within all types of network
protocols and services. A reference model is not
intended to be an implementation specification or to
provide a sufficient level of detail to define precisely the
services of the network architecture. The primary
purpose of a reference model is to aid in clearer
understanding of the functions and process involved
Ex: OSI model
 A protocol model provides a model that closely
matches the structure of a particular protocol suite. The
hierarchical set of related protocols in a suite typically
represents all the functionality required to interface the
human network with the data network.
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 Ex: TCP/IP model
The OSI Reference Model
 ISO
 Established in 1947, is a multinational body
dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards.
 The Open Systems Interconnection
protocols are a family of information
exchange standards developed jointly by
the ISO and the ITU-T. The standardization
process began in 1977
 An ISO standard that covers all aspects of
network communications is the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
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The OSI Reference Model
 The OSI reference model
is the primary model for
network
communications.
 Allows you to view the
network functions that
occur at each layer.
 It is a framework that
you can use to
understand how
information travels
throughout a network
 7 layers -- each of which
illustrates a particular
network function.

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The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.

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Application layer

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Application Layer
 Network virtual terminal, e.g. PuTTY,
FileZilla
 Directory services, e.g. X.500, LDAP
 E-mail services, e.g. X.400, SMTP
 File Transfer, Access and Management,
e.g. FTAM, FTP

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The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.

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Presentation layer

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Presentation Layer
Translation
Encryption
Compression

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The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

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Session layer

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Session layer
 Performs name recognition and related
security
 Synchronization between sender and receiver
 Assignment of time for transmission
 Start time
 End time etc.

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The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.

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Transport layer

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Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

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Transport layer
 Service-point addressing
 Segmentation
 Reassembly
 Connection control
 Flow control
 Error control

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The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

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Network layer

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Source-to-destination delivery

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Network Layer
Logical
addressing
Routing

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The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.

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Data link layer

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Hop-to-hop delivery

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Data-link layer
 Framing
 Physical addressing
 Flow control
 Error control
 Access control

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The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

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Physical layer

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Physical Layer
 Physical characteristics of
interfaces and medium
 Representation of bits.
 Data rate.
 Synchronization of bits.
 Transmission mode.
 Physical topology.

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Summary of layers

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The interaction between layers in the OSI model

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TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

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TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not
exactly match those in the OSI model.
The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined
as having four layers:
host-to-network, internet, transport, and
application.

However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we

can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made
of five layers:

physical, data link, network, transport, and

application.
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TCP/IP and OSI model

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TCP/IP Model

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Comparison
--Both have application
layers, though they
include very different
services
--Both have comparable
transport and network
(Internet) layers
--TCP/IP combines the
presentation and
session layer issues into
its application layer
--TCP/IP combines the
OSI data link and
physical layers into one
layer
--TCP/IP appears
simpler because it has
fewer layers
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TCP/IP Application Layer
• Ensures that the data is properly packaged
before being passed on.
• Handles high-level protocols, representation,
encoding, and dialog control.
There are lots of protocols
• Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP) – allows network managers to
Application
manage configurations, statistics,
performance, and security.
• Domain Name System (DNS) – used to
translate domain names into IP addresses.

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TCP/IP Application Layer
 Has protocols to support file transfer, e-
mail, and remote login:
 File Transfer:
 Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) –
unreliable, connectionless User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) service used to transfer
configuration files, Cisco IOS images, and to
transfer files in a LAN.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) – reliable,
connection-oriented service that uses TCP to
transfer files between systems
 Network File System (NFS) – allows file
access to a remote storage device such as a
hard disk
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TCP/IP Application Layer
 E-mail:
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) –
administers the transmission of plain text e-mail
over computer networks.
 Remote access:
 Telnet –remotely access a computer, enabling a
user to login to an Internet host and execute
commands. A Telnet client is called a local host. A
Telnet server is called a remote host.

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TCP/IP Transport Layer
 Provides a logical connection between a
source host and a destination host.
 Transport Layer protocols segment and
reassemble data sent by applications, into
the same data stream, between end
points.
 Provides end-to-end control and reliability
as data travels through the cloud,
accomplished through:
– sequence numbers, acknowledgments and
sliding windows.

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TCP/IP Transport Layer

I just sent #10 I just received #10

Now I need #11

This shows sequence numbers and

acknowledgements.

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TCP/IP Transport Layer
Sliding Windows

I just sent #11,

12 and 13 I just received #12
Now I need #13

Transport

This indicates that packet 13 either did not

arrive, or arrived with errors, and needs
retransmission.
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TCP/IP Transport Layer
Sliding Windows

I just sent #13

and 14 I just received #14
Now I need #15

Transport

The sliding window has worked as the last

packet sent has arrived.

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TCP/IP Transport Layer
 The only Transport layer protocols are
TCP and UDP.
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 Connection-oriented protocol
 End-to-end operation
 Flow control – sliding windows
 Reliability – sequence numbers and
acknowledgments
Transport
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 Connectionless
 Unreliable (no acknowledgments or error
checking)

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TCP/IP Internet Layer
 Two purposes are - determining the
best path and packet-switching.
 No error checking or correction
 Protocols:
 Internet Protocol (IP) - connectionless,
best-effort delivery routing of packets;
determines best path to destination
 Internet Control Message Protocol
Internet
(ICMP) – control and messaging
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) -
determines the MAC address, for a known IP
address.
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
(RARP) - determines the IP address for a
known MAC address.
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TCP/IP Network Access Layer
 Allows an IP packet to make a physical link
to the network media
 Maps IP addresses to MAC addresses
 Encapsulates IP packets into frames
 Drivers for modem cards, and other devices
operate at the network access layer.
Network  Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and
Access
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) provide
network access.
 ARP and RARP also work at this layer.

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Data Encapsulation
 Build the data
 Package the data
for end to end
support
(Segments)
 The data is put
into a packet or
datagram that
contains a
network header
with source and
destination
logical addresses
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Data Encapsulation
 Each network device
must put the packet
into a frame.
 The frame must be
converted into a
pattern of 1s and 0s
(bits)
 ***Data  Segments
 Packet  Frames
 Bits

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Data Encapsulation

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Data de-capsulation

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Addressing in the Network
 There are various types of addresses that must be
included to successfully deliver the data from a
source application running on one host to the
correct destination application running on another

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Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

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Physical addresses

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Example

Most local-area networks use a 48-

bit (6-byte) physical address written
as 12 hexadecimal digits; every
byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is
separated by a colon, as shown
below: 07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

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Example

Figure below shows a part of an internet

with two routers connecting three LANs.
Each device (computer or router) has a
pair of addresses (logical and physical) for
each connection. In this case, each
computer is connected to only one link
and therefore has only one pair of
addresses. Each router, however, is
connected to three networks (only two are
shown in the figure). So each router has
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three pairs of addresses, one for each
Figure IP addresses

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Example
Figure below shows two computers
communicating via the Internet. The
sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses
a, b, and c. The receiving computer is
running two processes at this time with
port addresses j and k. Process a in the
sending computer needs to communicate
with process j in the receiving computer.
Note that although physical addresses
change
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from hop to hop, logical and port
Figure Port addresses

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The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,
but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

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Example
A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one
decimal number as shown.

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A 16-bit port address represented as one single number.

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